Gentrex one-piece foamed thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) shoe concept from Tienkang using Mucell physical foaming technology.

A Decathlon trainer with thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) foam midsole. The textile upper is placed in the mould along with the durable TPU outer sole, and over-moulded with TPU using Mucell physical foam technology. This creates a lightweight and durable shoe with excellent rebound and recovery.

A demonstrator by Kurz to show off their wood-effect polyester foil hot stamped onto acrylic sheet, which is backlit with integrated tough sensor. A black mask is printed on the reverse side of the semi-transparent foil, which helps control the lighting effect. This kind of technology is used in appliances as well as automotive applications. In car interior applications, where head impact is a risk, polycarbonate (PC) is preferred over acrylic (PMMA).

Packaging bottle blow moulded from recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET). Using clear bottles as feedstock, it is possible to make a range of bright colours in new products from rPET.

Scarpa ski boot shell and cuff from injection moulded PA12 nylon polyether block amide (PEBA), thermoplastic elastomer (TPE-TPA), and Rilsan polyamide 11 (bio-PA).

Circle Supernatural running show with thermoplastic elastomer (TPE-TPA) foam midsole made with Arkema Pebx Rnew, a partially bio-based elastomer. The knitted textile upper is placed in the mould along with the durable TPE outer sole, and over-moulded with TPE using Mucell physical foam technology. This creates a lightweight and durable shoe with excellent rebound and recovery.

Hexpol Dryflex Circular recycled thermoplastic elastomer (rTPE) samples made by 3D printing. The saturated colour is possible due to the high quality scrap material used.

Exotech folding fins injection moulded in DuPont Hytrel thermoplastic elastomer (TPE-TPC). This version, called Eco-B, is equivalent in performance to those made from fossil feedstock, but with biomass content up to 72 % by weight. DuPont produces Hytrel Eco-B using a biomass balance approach certified by the ISCC+ (International Sustainability & Carbon Certification) standard.

Airbag covers are typically injection moulded thermoplastic elastomer (TPE). The material must be robust enough to withstand daily use, but able to breakaway in a controlled manner when the airbag is deployed.

Ski boot upper from injection moulded PA12 nylon polyether block amide (PEBA), thermoplastic elastomer (TPE-TPA).

Ski boot upper from injection moulded PA12 nylon polyether block amide (PEBA), thermoplastic elastomer (TPE-TPA), with printed graphic stickers

The F-22 Raptor, a stealth fighter aircraft from Lockheed Martin, first flown in 1997. Titanium alloy (principally grade 5, Ti 6-4) makes up around one-third of the aircraft. Hot isostatic pressing was utilised on large cast parts, such as the canopy deck and wing side-of-body, to minimise porosity and so enhance strength to weight and reliability. Around 350 parts, one-quarter of the aircraft by weight, is made up of resin transfer moulded (RTM) carbon fibre reinforced epoxy composite. High performance carbon fibres are used, such as T700 for lower cost parts, T800 for higher strength parts and T1000 for ultrahigh strength applications. Examples include the fuselage frame, doors, wing spars and honeycomb sandwich panels. Advanced RTM resin systems for these type of applications include epoxy and bismaleimide. The canopy consists of two sheets of polycarbonate (PC), sandwiched between two layers of glass, fusion bonded in an autoclave and drape formed. Indium-tin-oxide is vacuum deposited onto the canopy to reflect radar waves (scatters radio waves in various directions so as not to be detected by radar), which gives it a golden colour tint. Image Lockheed Martin Aeronautics.

Home compostable single use cup injection moulded in thermoplastic starch (TPS).

Starch based plastic developed by ELT and here used to make home compostable flower pots.

A 3D printed tool insert made with polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) using Arburg Freeformer. It has adequate heat resistance for moulding prototypes in silicone and certain thermoplastics.

Hot water bottle dip moulded from polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

The front grille for the BMW iX is produced in a cleanroom environment, since any dust would be visible through the high-gloss polyurethane (PUR) finish. Produced in an integrated process, the component consists of a functional film that is back-injection moulded with polycarbonate (PC) and then flood-coated with 2-3 mm PUR. Engel developed the production cell.

Cross-section through the detachable roof modules of the Ford Bronco. This part is made with a thermoformed thermoplastic outer layer, which is back-moulded with glass fibre and polyurethane resin (PUR), plus a Nomex honeycomb core for increased thickness (stiffness with minimal additional weight). It is manufactured by compression moulding, whereby the thermoformed polycarbonate (PC) is placed into the mould, onto which glass fibre and honeycomb are laid. A precise dose of PUR is applied by spraying on the layers and then the whole assembly is compressed in a mould and heated to cure.

Reusable cutlery set injection moulded in polypropylene (PP) blended with 15% thermoplastic starch (TPS). The use of TPS reduces the use of virgin polymer.

Cross-section through a reusable foamed cup in polypropylene (PP), manufactured using EcoCore injection moulding technology, that integrates an insulating foam between the two outer skins (MuCell microcellular foam injection). The graphics are applied using a PP in-mould label (IML), which ensures the returnable cup remains recyclable as a monomaterial at the end of its life.

Yonda chair by Neunzig°design studio for Wilkhahn features oak legs and and injection moulded recycled polypropylene (rPP) top with 20% wood filler.

Cross-section of a foam sandwich injection moulding. The white outer is virgin polypropylene (PP) and the black core is foamed recycled PP (rPP). The layers are formed by first injecting the white (the colour has been used to emphasis the technology in this case) and then injecting the black with chemical foaming agent (CO2). The black rPP forms a bubble inside the white, pushing into onto the surface of the mould. In application, the surface layer would be the same colour as the core to create a high quality visual surface. This example is a cross-section through the LimbicLife ergonomic chair seat. The process and tooling were engineering and optimised by Deckerform.

Bockatech reusable cup in polypropylene (PP), manufactured using EcoCore injection moulding technology, that integrates an insulating foam between the two outer skins (MuCell microcellular foam injection). The graphics are applied using a PP in-mould label (IML), which ensures the returnable cup remains recyclable as a monomaterial at the end of its life.

Karcher pressure washer with injection moulded polypropylene copolymer (PPC) housing. This material is chosen for its very high impact properties, low density and low cost.

Renault interior door panel made with LYB LyondelBasell polypropylene (PP) with a chemical foaming agent added to produce a foamed part. This approach helps to save 15-20% weight. The texture is designed to eliminate the need for a covering, to save cost and ensure the part can be recycled end of life.

Renault interior door panel made with LYB LyondelBasell polypropylene (PP) with a chemical foaming agent added to produce a foamed part. This approach helps to save 15-20% weight. The texture is designed to eliminate the need for a covering, to save cost and ensure the part can be recycled end of life.

Renault A pillar interior trim made with LYB LyondelBasell polypropylene copolymer (PPC). A special effect compound is added to create the speckled appearance in combination with moulded textile texture, eliminating the need for covering.

Audi loud speaker grille made with LYB LyondelBasell CirculenRecover 50% post industrial recycled (PIR) polypropylene (rPP). It has properties very close to that of virgin polymer for this application.

Exterior door side trim from the Dacia Duster made with LYB LyondelBasell CirculenRecover 20% post industrial recycled (PIR) polypropylene (rPP). A special effect compound is added to create the speckled appearance and eliminate the need for coating.

Samsonite suitcase made with LYB LyondelBasell CirculenRecover 78% post consumer recycled (PCR) polypropylene (rPP). This grade is optimised for impact strength, including at low temperatures, which is needed for suitcases especially when travelling in aeroplanes.

Interior automotive part in 100% recycled polypropylene (rPP). This grade from Burpol is optimised for both stiffness and impact strength, finding a balance between the two. It is only available in black or very dark colours.

An automotive door inner, produced from polypropylene (PP) using MuCell foaming technology. The foam reduces the density of the part, allowing it to become thicker and stiffer without adding weight. Foaming usually leaves surface marks as a result of the flow of the gas during moulding. It is most visible in black parts. The polymer is modified with additives to reduce the effect and surface texture added to eliminate the visual impact altogether. In this way, a monomaterial part is possible, without any coating or covering necessary.

An automotive interior part, produced from polypropylene (PP) using MuCell foaming technology. The foam reduces the density of the part, allowing it to become thicker and stiffer without adding weight. Foaming usually leaves surface marks as a result of the flow of the gas during moulding. It is most visible in black parts. The polymer is modified with additives to reduce the effect and surface texture added to eliminate the visual impact altogether. In this case, a textured in-mould label (IML) has been added to the centre (silver), completely concealing the black plastic beneath.

An automotive door inner, produced from polypropylene (PP) using MuCell foaming technology. The foam reduces the density of the part, allowing it to become thicker and stiffer without adding weight. Foaming usually leaves surface marks as a result of the flow of the gas during moulding. It is most visible in black parts. The polymer is modified with additives to reduce the effect and surface texture added to eliminate the visual impact altogether. In this way, a monomaterial part is possible, without any coating or covering necessary.

Injection moulded polypropylene (PP) with 30% lignin additive. The lignin is a by-product of paper making and forestry, and can be mixed directly with the to produce a bio-based composite.

Injection moulded reusable steel lined thermal mug made with Biolive plastic. This material is based on polypropylene (PP) with 25-75% ground olive stones and other waste from olive oil making.

Injection moulded tray from the Vestel appliance range that features Biolive plastic. This material is based on polypropylene (PP) with 25-75% ground olive stones and other waste from olive oil making.

An electric vehicle battery pack tray injection compression moulded in long glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-LGF20) by Engel to demonstrate their large-format insert moulding capabilities.

Tivoli clarified polypropylene (PP) reusable cup, injection moulded with PP in-mould label (IML) graphics. Using a single material throughout ensure compatibility of this returnable cup for recycling once it reaches the end of its useful life. However, the ink used for the decoration is trapped between the IML film and moulded cup, and so becomes contamination during recycling and means the cup cannot be recycled back into the same product.

Victrex pharmaceutical grade polyetheretherketone (PEEK).

Bang & Olufsen automotive loud speaker grille injection moulded from polycarbonate alloy (PC/PBT).

Cross-section through a concept automotive seat by Johnson Controls and Camisma, manufactured with a combination of thermoforming and injection moulding. Sheets of continuous and unidirectional 12k carbon fibre and in-situ cast PA12 are combined with powder impregnated PA12 nonwoven recycled carbon fibre. They are placed into the mould and thermoformed, prior to back injection moulding of the rib structure using 30% long glass fibre filled PA12. Compared to a steel equivalent this structure saves 50% of the weight.

Concept automotive seat by Johnson Controls and Camisma, manufactured with a combination of thermoforming and injection moulding. Sheets of continuous and unidirectional 12k carbon fibre and in-situ cast PA12 are combined with powder impregnated PA12 nonwoven recycled carbon fibre. They are placed into the mould and thermoformed, prior to back injection moulding of the rib structure using 30% long glass fibre filled PA12. Compared to a steel equivalent this structure saves 50% of the weight.

Vekrun performance bike saddle base structure is injection moulded with Lehvoss Luvocom polyamide 610 (bio-PA) combined with recycled carbon fibre (rCF).

A high impact transportation case for delicate electronics injection moulded with polyamide 66 plus 30% glass fibre (PA-GF30). The coarse sparked surface texture helps to conceal the visual impacts of the glass fibres.

Vertigo Club kettle by Vertige featuring injection moulded Rilsan polyamide 11 (bio-PA) with recycled mineral fillers.

Asus gaming mouse made with Arkema Rilsan polyamide 11 (bio-PA), bio-based nylon.

Polyamide 6 (PA), nylon, from recycled scrap. The colour that can be achieved in recycled plastic depends on the source of waste. In this case, Kolon produce recycled PA from old ship mooring ropes, the core of which provides a relatively clean source of material suitable for bright colours. If mixed waste is used, light bright colours are not usually possible, unless sophisticated sorting is employed to separate white and clear from coloured, which increases cost.

A power tool housing injection moulded in 30% glass fibre reinforced polyamide 6 (PA-GF30). A combination of additives and surface texture help to conceal the visual impact of the fibres.

Lego has replaced the single use plastic packaging used for their sets with paper bags. In 2024, over 90% of Lego's packaging is paper-based.

Dry moulded paper packaging, produced from multiple layers of paper pressed and bonded together with heat. While the raw materials are more expensive than moulded pulp, the production rate is much faster and energy costs are lower. The raw material prices are decreasing as the paper is becoming available from more mills. The challenge is finding paper webs (rolls) with crosswise grain, to ensure high strength and stable packaging when laminated together with the conventional lengthwise grain stock. These examples were produced on an OMG Thermoforming machine.

The Prada America's Cup sneaker features a natural rubber upper over-moulded onto knitted textile.
Relevant materials
Natural rubber, NR, Rubber

NSB Class 71 train, built by Adtranz Strømmen, featuring spot welded stainless steel body shell and strengthened glass

N700S-8000 Shinkansen high-speed train, developed by Japan Railway Company, features extruded aluminium bodywork. The nose consists of 32 plates welded together and strengthened glass window. The metalwork is topcoated with fluoroethylene vinyl ether (FEVE), a tough long lasting fluoropolymer created for demanding exterior applications.

Luckys Naturbausteine (Natural Bricks) are produced using Tecnaro Arboblend biopolymer. While the exact ingredients are proprietary, it is made with at least 98% bio-based raw materials (including glucose, natural waxes and minerals). The exact recipe depends on the application. In this case, a durable product is required that can tolerate normal household use including dishwashing. Therefore, it will not biodegrade as is, but would likely behave like wood if left in the soil, taking some years to breakdown. It doesn't include any fossil-based plastic or plasticisers.

Magu tableware is produced using Tecnaro Arboblend biopolymer. While the exact ingredients are proprietary, it is made with at least 98% bio-based raw materials (including glucose, natural waxes and minerals). The exact recipe depends on the application. In this case, a durable product is required that can tolerate normal household use including dishwashing. Therefore, it will not biodegrade as is, but would likely behave like wood if left in the soil, taking some years to breakdown. It doesn't include any fossil-based plastic or plasticisers.

A Fraunhofer ICT concept for expanded polylactic acid (EPLA) foam safety helmet. EPLA is roughly equivalent to the price of expanded polypropylene (EPP), but more expensive than expanded polystyrene (EPS).

Maipac Nespresso-compatible coffee capsules made with home compostable polybutylene succinate (PBS) by Sun Circle.

Some example colours in polybutylene succinate (PBS) by Sun Circle with masterbatch (colour) by Grafe. PBS provides a home compostable alternative to polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) in packaging applications, for example.

Injection moulded reusable food packaging made with Arweco polylactic acid (PLA) filled with oat husks, a byproduct of farming. The use of bio-based additives is enhanced by the use of Polytives additives, which helps by reducing the temperature and pressure required in moulding.

Injection over-moulded die cast aluminium for a Hilti power tool gearbox body. The aluminium is cast and de-burred, and the polyamide (PA-GF30), nylon, is over-moulded in-line using a fully automated process developed by Frimo.

Senoplast Senosan high impact acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) co-extruded with thermoplastic elastomer (TPE-TPS) and thermoformed into an automotive interior component. While the ABS provides impact strength and rigidity, the TPE contributes a tactile and durable surface.

Audi loud speaker grille made with LYB LyondelBasell CirculenRecover 50% post industrial recycled (PIR) acrylonitrile butadiene styrene blended with polyamide (rABS-PA). It has properties very close to that of virgin polymer for this application.

Lego made with colourful injection moulded acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Cup holder with in-mould electronics (IME) for warming made with Lehvoss Luvocom polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) thermally conductive polymer.

Woolchemy NeweZorb is an ultra-absorbent, breathable textile that can absorb over 10 times more moisture than its original weight while still feeling dry and comfortable. It offers an alternative to synthetic textiles in hygiene applications, such as diapers (nappies), incontinence and feminine hygiene products. Image Woolchemy.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Simplifyber concept shoe made with their moulded fabric technology. The upper is produced from liquid cellulose-based pulp, which is moulded with heat and pressure into the final shape. The soles of the concept shoe were 3D printed from thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), through a collaboration with HP. Image Simplifyber.

Fjordenhus in the Vejle Fjord in Denmark, by Olafur Eliasson, completed 2018. It is the headquarters of Kirk Kapital, which is the holding and investment company for three brothers who are direct descendent of the founder of Lego. Built around a concrete structure, the building's walls consist of 970,000 bricks. Olafur Eliasson chose 15 different hues of unglazed brick, along with blue, green and silver glazed bricks.
Relevant materials
Brick, Moulded

Fjordenhus in the Vejle Fjord in Denmark, by Olafur Eliasson, completed 2018. It is the headquarters of Kirk Kapital, which is the holding and investment company for three brothers who are direct descendent of the founder of Lego. Built around a concrete structure, the building's walls consist of 970,000 bricks. Olafur Eliasson chose 15 different hues of unglazed brick, along with blue, green and silver glazed bricks.
Relevant materials
Brick, Moulded

The Wave in Vejle, Denmark, by Henning Larsen Architects, completed 2019. The outside weather barrier is formed from Tonality extruded clay cladding, which from a distance looks like a continuous white sheet.
Relevant materials
Brick, Extruded

The Wave in Vejle, Denmark, by Henning Larsen Architects, completed 2019. The outside weather barrier is formed from Tonality extruded clay cladding, which from a distance looks like a continuous white sheet.
Relevant materials
Brick, Extruded

Cityring Metro Station, Copenhagen, by Arup, featuring glazed ceramic tile wall cladding. The monochrome glazed tile by Moeding featured here is available in lengths up to 3 m and heights up to 1 m, and a range of colours. This product appears in seven of the 17 new metro stations.
Relevant materials
Brick, Extruded

Cityring Metro Station, Copenhagen, by Arup, featuring glazed ceramic tile wall cladding. The monochrome glazed tile by Moeding featured here is available in lengths up to 3 m and heights up to 1 m, and a range of colours. This product appears in seven of the 17 new metro stations.
Relevant materials
Brick, Extruded

Cityring Central Station, Copenhagen, by Arup, featuring glazed ceramic tile wall cladding and cast reinforced concrete beams. The Longoton brick tile by Moeding featured here is available in lengths up to 3 m and heights up to 1 m, and a range of brick colours and glazes. This product appears in seven of the 17 new metro stations.

TRÆ in Aarhus, Denmark, is built in part from reused construction waste. Designed by Lendager Architects for Kilden & Hindby and PFA Ejendomme, in collaboration with MOE Consulting Engineers and Kaj Ove Madsen, Aarhus Municipality and Realdania, it is due to be completed 2024. Reuse and recycling innovations in the facade include the use of decommissioned composite wind turbine blades for solar shielding, aluminium roof plates for the facade, wooden cassettes, wood insulation, low-carbon concrete and insulation from waste textiles. The reused aluminium facade comes from two different renovation projects, where they had been discarded, plus water-damaged panels from a supplier. Standing 78 m high, the structure is steel, concrete and timber. All materials have been thoroughly tested so that they continue to meet the requirements and regulations.

TRÆ in Aarhus, Denmark, is built in part from reused construction waste. Designed by Lendager Architects for Kilden & Hindby and PFA Ejendomme, in collaboration with MOE Consulting Engineers and Kaj Ove Madsen, Aarhus Municipality and Realdania, it is due to be completed 2024. Reuse and recycling innovations in the facade include the use of decommissioned composite wind turbine blades for solar shielding, aluminium roof plates for the facade, wooden cassettes, wood insulation, low-carbon concrete and insulation from waste textiles. The reused aluminium facade comes from two different renovation projects, where they had been discarded, plus water-damaged panels from a supplier. Standing 78 m high, the structure is steel, concrete and timber. All materials have been thoroughly tested so that they continue to meet the requirements and regulations.

Hay Stripes and Stripes rugs in wool and cotton. The wool weft is visible, concealing the cotton warp below.

Durat is a solid surface materials for counter tops, sinks, baths, kitchens and bathrooms. It is a composite of polyester with 30% post industrial recycled waste. According to the company's environmental product declaration (EPD), this material has a carbon footprint of 3.35 kgCO2/kg. Image Durat.

The Noho Move dining chair by Noho is injection moulded from Econyl recycled polyamide (rPA), nylon, along with recycled polypropylene (rPP). Image Econyl.

Stacks of folded colour crates on display at Hay. The crates are injection moulded recycled polypropylene (rPP) from post-consumer recycled (PCR) waste.

Rotation moulded low density polyethylene (LDPE) surface. The embossed logo is cut into the surface of the mould and so reproduced directly into the part. The texture is created by shot blasting (steel bead) on the surface of the aluminium tool. The texture is adjusted by changing the size of steel bead and air pressure used in the process. The glossiness (and subsequently the colour saturation) is determined by the flaming process, which is carried out on the moulded part. Each one is processed separately by heating the surface with an exposed flame. It is often a manual process and so open to variation.

Cross-section through a rotation moulded sample that illustrates an inner layer of foam, which is used to provide added stiffness without a significant increase in weight. Both materials are polyethylene (PE) and produced in the same moulding cycle: the natural (off-white) skin is moulded and once formed the yellow foaming material is added to the mould. The colour has been added to the foamed PE to highlight the separate materials.

Cross-section through a kiss-off feature on a rotation moulded part. These features are used to tie together the side walls which increases overall rigidity.

Low density polyethylene (LDPE) colour sample for rotation moulding powder by Poliplast.

Rotation moulded high density polyethylene (HDPE) lid for a Thermos cooler box. The heavy texture, which is applied to the surface of the mould and reproduced in the plastic, helps to conceal moulding defects, as well as general wear and tear - PE is relatively soft and will scratch easily if bashed about in the back of a car and on the beach.

Oak plank stool, Original Coffee, Copenhagen.

Hay floor mat in woven jute with a wool border.
Relevant materials
Jute fibre, Fibre

Montana Rise kitchen cabinet featuring rolled glass doors

The Martin wall light by Inga Sempé for Hay features a pleated cotton shade laminated to a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheet.

The Martin pendant light by Inga Sempé for Hay features a pleated cotton shade laminated to a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheet.

Kvadrat Really materials are produced from recycled textiles collected from production waste, industrial laundries, the fashion industry and Kvadrat’s production and supply chain. The textiles are sorted by colour and re-milled in Denmark. Subsequently, the fibres are either blended into standard products or used to create a nonwoven base for Kvadrat Really materials, such as acoustic solutions and panels for furniture and interiors. The compressed panels are made with 9% bio-based polypropylene (bio-PP) and 17% bio-based polyethylene (bio-PE) binder. According to the company's environmental product declaration (EPD), Kvadrat Really has a carbon footprint of 0.95 kgCO2/kg in the production phase (excluding use and end of life). The standard product is 10 mm thick and 1100 x 3000 mm, weighing 29 kg. This gives a density of around 88 kg/m3. Image Kvadrat.

Ceramic outdoor table by Muller Van Severen for Hay, features a bright yellow porcelain top on a powder coated steel tube and concrete base.

Villa Gitz by Lars Gitz Architects, completed 2020, on the island of Orø in Denmark, features a Rockpanel facade. The 9mm cladding panels are made with compressed recycled Rockwool, comprising basalt fibre and organic binder. Inherently flame retardant and very stable, the sheets are finished with a multi-layer water-based paint to provide durable colour and protection.
Relevant materials
Basalt, BF, Fibre

Extruded aluminium lighting, Original Coffee, Copenhagen.

Clouds by Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec for Kvadrat. An innovative, interlocking fabric tile concept for the home made with napped wool fabric surrounding a polyethylene (PE) foam core.

Clouds by Ronan and Erwan Bouroullec for Kvadrat. An innovative, interlocking fabric tile concept for the home made with napped wool fabric surrounding a polyethylene (PE) foam core.

Woola develop recycled wool based textiles that provide an alternative to plastic bubblewrap for packaging delicate items during transportation. The recycled wool fibres are bound with a small proportion of polylactic acid (PLA), which the company are phasing out to go plastic free. Image Woola.

Shaped walnut disk.

Woodio wood-based composite made up of 80% wood chips and 20% polyester resin. The colour comes from the resin.The larger chips are produced from birch waste from Finnish sawmills, and the smaller chips are virgin Estonian aspen.

Colour samples of Woodio wood-based composite made up of 80% wood chips and 20% polyester resin. The colour comes from the resin. It is used in bathroom products, such as bathtubs, washbasins and countertops.

Woodio cast bathroom products, such as bathtubs, washbasins and countertops, are made with a wood-based composite. The waterproof composite consists of aspen and birch wood chips held together with 20% polyester resin.

Coca Cola bottles made with 100% recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET), such as Morssinkhof - Rymoplast's MOPET post consumer recycled (PCR) material. The bottles are transparent to aid recycling end of use. Image Coca Cola.

IKEA Pluggis storage bin made with Morssinkhof - Rymoplast's recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET). Image IKEA.

In collaboration with Mcdonald’s France, Elium Studio created a range of reusable tableware for their restaurants using Eastman Tritan copolyester. This is an engineering material with good hardness, exceptional visual properties and very high resistance to water and chemicals, essential for repeated dishwasher cycles. Image Elium Studio.

In collaboration with Mcdonald’s France, Elium Studio created a range of reusable tableware for their restaurants using Eastman Tritan copolyester. This is an engineering material with good hardness, exceptional visual properties and very high resistance to water and chemicals, essential for repeated dishwasher cycles. Image Elium Studio.

Black & Decker Reviva cordless screwdriver, the housing of which is made with Tritan Renew copolyester containing 50% post consumer recycled (PCR) plastic. The material is chemically recycled from single use polyester packaging and converted into an engineering material suitable for demanding applications. Image Black & Decker.

3D printed plastic table light by Manu using recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET), polyester, from drinks bottles and packaging.

Thermoformed meat packaging tray in black polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester. Black is used to make the meat look as good as possible. However, it is the most difficult colour to identify in recycling, with some sorting centres forced to separate it for incineration rather than recycling.

A 3D printed shoe concept by Vivobarefoot in collaboration with Balena using their bio-based thermoplastic elastomer (bio-TPE) BioCirflex. It is recyclable and compostable using industrial facilities. Image Vivobarefoot.

A glass lampshade, vacuum deposition coated to produce a semi-transparent gold colour - like a one-way mirror the thin film coating can only be seen through when brighter on the other side, such as with the bulb illuminated.

PaperFoam Plus offers a bio-based and home compostable alternative to expanded polystyrene (EPS). It is thicker and stronger than regular PaperFoam, with wall sections up to 5 mm, making it suitable for packaging and transporting heavier products. It is drop-tested up to 5 kg. Image PaperFoam.
Relevant materials
Starch, Foam, Paperfoam

Paperfoam starch based, home compostable bioplastic packaging in various colours.
Relevant materials
Starch, Foam, Paperfoam

Paperfoam starch based bioplastic packaging offers a home compostable alternative to plastic packaging. It is suitable for packaging lightweight goods and products, including medical and electronics.
Relevant materials
Starch, Foam, Paperfoam

A house in Sweden by Wingårdhs, featuring a spruce interior treated with Linolie & Pigment satin wood linseed oil. The oil is semi-transparent, revealing the wood grain beneath. Image Linolie & Pigment.

Flex Tube from Studio About by Mikkel Lang Mikkelsen features an LED light in a silicone rubber tube that can be bent and draped. It is waterproof and so can be used outdoors.

Le Klint 101, also known as the fruit lamp, by Kaare Klint, 1944. It was recreated as an XL version in 2007. The lamp has a brushed steel suspension and pleated polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foil shade.

Wheel arch liner, produced with polyurethane (PUR) reaction injection moulding (RIM), manufactured by Erpro 3D Nord Factory

Out of the Closet lamp, by Øvind Slaatto for Muji, 2023, reuses injection moulded polystyrene (PS) drawer partitions

A novel injection moulding technology, which puts two materials into the mould cavity one after the other to create a multi-layer moulded structure. In this example, virgin polypropylene (PP) is injected first, followed by glass-fibre reinforced recycled PP (rPP-GF). The rPP-GF forms a bubble inside the first, forcing it to fill the cavity and creating a thin layer of glass-free colour on the surface, which has good tactile and visual properties. The GF in the core layer is for additional strength and stiffness.

Cross-section through injection moulded polypropylene (PP) shell, over-moulded with PP foam

Made of Air HexChar moulded cladding on the Audi dealership in Munich. Completed in 2021, this is the first time the product was installed on a building, providing a distinctive design and protection against the elements. While the matrix is UV resistant bio-based polymer, the additive is produced from biochar that is derived from waste wood biomass leftover from production. If the sequestered carbon of the wood is taken into account then this results in a carbon negative product. Image Made of Air.

Natural fibre panels produced in a single step involving compression and injection moulding. Fibres are typically hemp, flax, jute or kenaf, mixed with polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, which melt when heat and pressure is applied locking them in place. The over-moulding is with PP for integration and added stiffness.

Natural fibre panels used in automotive interior applications, such as this compressed nonwoven, are replacing glass filled and wood filled polypropylene (PP-GF and PP-WF) materials. They offer superior strength to weight combined with impact resistance. Fibres are typically hemp, flax, jute or kenaf, mixed with PP or polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, which melt when heat and pressure is applied locking them in place.

Bio-based panels used in automotive interior applications, such as this compressed nonwoven natural fibre instrument panel topper, are replacing glass filled and wood filled polypropylene (PP-GF and PP-WF) materials. They offer superior strength to weight combined with impact resistance. Fibres are typically hemp, flax, jute or kenaf, mixed with PP or polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, which melt when heat and pressure is applied locking them in place. Moulded by Weav3D.

Hallbar bins from IKEA use Morssinkhof - Rymoplast recycled polypropylene (rPP) with at least 20% waste content. Image IKEA.

Compression moulded woven glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF60) for automotive applications

Coffee sacks made from woven textured polypropylene (PP) spun to mimic the colour and natural variability of jute fibre

FENC Topgreen recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET), polyester, textile coloured with waterless dyeing using supercritical CO2. Image FENC (Far Eastern New Century Corporation).

EVBox's new Livo electric vehicle charging wallbox is made with Makrolon RE polycarbonate (PC) from Covestro. Makrolon RE is produced proportionately from biowaste and residual materials, partly using renewable electricity, and therefore has a relatively lower carbon footprint. Image EVBox.

Door impact bar test part for the Audi A4 consisting of several layers of woven glass fibre in a polyamide (PA-GF), nylon, matrix. The PA-GF organo is thermoformed into the shape of the mould and then back injection moulded with short fibre PA-GF. The result of a collaboration between Audi AG, Bond Laminates, the Institute for Composite Materials, Jacob Plastics, Lanxess, and KraussMaffei, this is a mass-producible composite suitable for safety-critical automotive applications. It is known as SpriForm and FiberForm.

Semi-structural automotive part, produced with compression moulded woven glass fibre reinforced polyamide (PA-GF50) organo, over-moulded with PA-GF30

Press moulded carbon fibre reinforced PA12 ribbed panel with aluminium inserts, by Schappe Techniques, using their proprietary TPFL yarn

PaperShell is an innovative laminated paper composite bonded with high-strength bioresin (such as furan). It is a type of high pressure laminate (HPL), made with kraft paper, that can be moulded into 3D parts with precise surfaces. Image PaperShell.

Cosmo Table Lamp by Paper Paste Living. Made with moulded paper pulp from recycled paper, and an ash wood structure.

Marmoreal by Max Lamb for Dzek is a terrazzo consisting of around 95% marble and 5% polyester resin binder. It is made with marble waste in large chunks. Rosso Verona, Giallo Mori, and Verde Alpi are the three Italian marbles featured. Bianco Verona is used to create the white-background version, and Grigio Carnico is used for the black-background version. Image Dzek.

Hemplith hempcrete building block by von Hanf. The hemp block is a non-load-bearing glued masonry product designed for the production of healthy and natural insulating envelopes, partition walls and counter-partitions.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Hemplime, Hempcrete

Hemplith hempcrete building block by von Hanf. The hemp block is a non-load-bearing glued masonry product designed for the production of healthy and natural insulating envelopes, partition walls and counter-partitions.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Hemplime, Hempcrete

Stan Smith Mylo by Adidas, limited edition shoe 2021, featuring a mushroom leather upper. Mylo is made from mycelium fungi manufactured by Bolt Threads. Natural rubber midsole. Image Bolt Threads.

A Good Company Reprtct tempered glass screen protector made with 46% recycled materials. Image A Good Company.

The Offcut Chair 01 by Pettersen & Hein using Dinesen Douglas fir treated with Linolie & Pigment satin wood linseed oil.

Towels woven with Good Earth Cotton.
Relevant materials
Cotton, Organic

Utzon JU1 pendant light, by Jørn Utzon for &Tradition, 1947, produced by a combination of deep drawing and metal spinning. This example is in brass, lacquered to maintain the bright gold finish.

Swing light, by House Doctor, in brass plated iron.

Slip cast porcelain light shades by Hirotaka Tobimatsu, Japan Form.
Relevant materials
Ceramic, Porcelain, China

Slip cast porcelain light shades by Hirotaka Tobimatsu, Japan Form.
Relevant materials
Ceramic, Porcelain, China

Thinksound ov21 over-ear headphones. The plastic parts are moulded from Eastman Treva, cellulose bioplastic, and the wood cover is walnut. According to Thinksound, the cellulose engineering bioplastic helps to reduce resonance, distortion, and improve acoustic performance. Image Thinksound.

Recycled carbon fibre fabric offcuts, with polyetherimide (PEI) matrix, compression moulded into a aerospace interior housing. Produced by Carbonium.

Light Light Chair, designed by Alberto Meda for Alias, 1987, is manufactured with Nomex honeycomb core sandwiched between layers of unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced epoxy. Weight is c. 1 kg. Image Alberto Meda.

Front (formerly StoneCycling) WasteBasedBricks and WasteBasedSlips consist of 60% waste masonry from construction and demolition. The waste materials are ground into a powder, mixed, moulded and fired to make new masonry. the colours are determined by the mix of raw materials and can be controlled to an extent. They are in the region of 2-4 times more expensive than standard masonry.
Relevant materials
Brick, Moulded

Artek Stool 60 by Alvar Aalto, 1933. This example, Kontrasti, features thermally modified (TMT) birch in the joins to highlight the innovative features. Made entirely of birch, it has been in continuous production in the same factory in Finland since 1933. Image Artek.

3D printed vases in polylactic acid (PLA) by Sheyn. They have a glass insert to allow them to be used for fresh flowers.

Plntprtct phone cases by A Good Company are made with a mix of polylactic acid (PLA), polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) - two types of biodegradable polyester - hemp, flax and cellulose. The material is industrially compostable and recyclable. Image A Good Company.

Nuatan bio-based plastic are based on biodegradable polyester. They are formed by 3D printing, injection moulding, extrusion and CNC machining. At the end of their useful life, they are suitable for industrial composting. Image Crafting Plastics.

A screw used to join the straw bales of S-HOUSE, injection moulded with Treeplast, which consists of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) bio-based polyester, mixed with wood chip and crushed corn.

Cross-section through the Kvadrat Acoustics Soft Cells Broadline panels. The framed wall mounted units are constructed from extruded recycled aluminium, a recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET), polyester, cover, and recycled glass wool absorbent. Using extrusions means the dimensions of the product can be tailored to the application. The fabric is held onto the frame by a mechanical locking feature.

Statoil regional headquarters, Fornebu, Norway, completed 2012, designed by A-lab, features a steel and concrete superstructure, powder coated aluminium skinned composite panels (Etalbond made with 3105 sheet) with integrated insulation, triple-glazed windows and external sun protection

Extruded, brushed and bright blue anodised aluminium cover

Moulded tableware made with a composite of melamine and bamboo wood flour.

Vita Student Newcastle, UK, clad in sandstone and elZinc rhomboid shingles (manufactured by Asturiana de Laminados). Image SIG Zinc and Copper.

The Stade de Soccer de Montreal was designed as a collaboration between Canadian studios Saucier + Perrotte and HCMA. It is clad in elZinc plate (slate finish) manufactured by Asturiana de Laminados. Image SIG Zinc and Copper.

Rhomboidal zinc shingle cladding. Image SIG Zinc and Copper.

Die casting in Zamak 5, this complex casting is a central support unit for a large complex medical imaging unit. Image International Zinc Association.

Die casting in Zamak 5 by Matthies Druckguss (Germany). The three-piece bayonet XT-A is a heat sink for an LED light. Image Matthies Druckguss (Germany).

Die casting in Zamak 5 by Adolf Föhl Germany. It is a shift lever that connects the shifter and the gear in ZF automotive gearboxes. Image Adolf Föhl Germany.

Lime Wharf in Hackney, London, completed 2014, designed by Stephen Davy Peter Smith Architects, featuring standing seam zinc cladding

Traditional Icelandic sweater hand knitted with a mix of sheep and alpaca wool.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Climatex LifeCycle fabrics by Rohner Textil. These compostable textiles made up of wool and ramie, developed by MBDC (William McDonough and Michael Braungart), are the result of a long process of removing all toxic ingredients from the fibre production. Until then, Rohner Textil had been forced to treat product scraps as hazardous waste due to the use of problematic and hazardous dyes that were regulated in Switzerland.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Camelux is a high performance nonwoven insulation made by Imbotex Lab using waste camel hair mixed with recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET). Image Imbotex Lab.

Bridgedale Trekker sock, circular knitted wool blended with polyamide (PA), nylon and polypropylene (PP) for added wear resistance and strength, and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), spandex, for comfort.

A selection of Kvadrat 'regenerative' wool-based upholstery textiles with a minimum of 80% renewable contents. Sisu by Nanna Ditzel and Danh Võ made with 91% Norwegian wool, 8% New Zealand wool and 1% polyamide (PA), nylon. Ria by Raf Simons made with 96% wool, 12% viscose and 4% nylon. Vidar 4 by Fanny Aronsen made with 94% wool and 6% nylon. Hallingdal 65 by Nanna Ditzel made with 70% wool and 30% viscose. Twill Weave by Jonathan Olivares made with 90% wool and 10% nylon. Serpentine by Giulio Ridolfo made with 98% wool and 2% nylon.

Climatex Dualcycle upholstery fabric, which consists of wool, recycled nylon and lyocell (regenerated cellulose), which can be separated for recycling end-of-life.

A densely woven Axminster carpet, produced with a mix of wool and polyamide (PA), nylon, to take advantage of the benefits of both. Synthetic fibre also tends to be less expensive than wool, and so blending the two helps to bring the price down, but maintain a durable floor covering.

VIA57 chair, by Bjarke Ingels and KiBiSi for Fritz Hansen, 2016, consists of a steel frame, overmoulded with polyurethane foam, upholstered with wool fabric. The legs are lacquered oak

Bang & Olufsen Beosound Shape, a modular, wall-mounted speaker system, featuring Kvadrat wool textiles and dark-stained oak veneer

Printed linen base, with inserted wool wefts, cut to form pile.

DSB train seating, featuring wool and pigmented cowhide leather upholstery over moulded polyurethane resin (PUR) foam. The materials used in public transport must meet strict flame and emissions requirements. For example, the leather is treated during tanning to enhance flame retardancy. Flammable parts, such as wood, parts must be below a certain size and weight, so as not to contribute to a potential fire.

Lavanlan insulation produced with virgin wool. Providing an alternative to synthetic fibrefills it is used in a range of applications including jackets, gloves, ski bags, sleeping bags, ski helmets and home textiles. It is mixed with polylactic acid (PLA), biodegradable polyester, to provide a durable nonwoven structure.

Ant chair, by Arne Jacobsen for Fritz Hansen, 1952, upholstered in wool

Norlha woven scarf made with yak wool.

Norlha nonwoven fabrics made with yak wool.

Yak wool in its natural colours before being processed into yarn or textile. In the spring, yak khullu (soft undercoat) is removed by hand combing, not shearing. It is sorted by quality and colour, de-haired to remove the long stiff fibres, and washed. Younger yaks have the softest and most desirable fibre – each animal yields between 100-125 g of soft fibre. It is equivalent to the finest wool in terms of softness, breathability and temperature regulation. Avoiding bleaching and dyeing eliminates the chemicals and pollution associated with these industrial processes – it is naturally light brown, dark brown and grey.

Ethical wool knit.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Johnstons of Elgin scarf woven from vicuña. Hunted virtually to extinction, vicuña is a rare and expensive fibre. Today it is sourced from both farmed and wild animals. It is soft, strong and resilient, with exceptional insulating properties.

The natural crimp of wool depends on the breed.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Knitted cashmere. Originally from India, now the majority of cashmere comes from China.
Relevant materials
Wool, Goat hair, Cashmere

A densely woven Wilton carpet, made up of dyed wool pile, cut to a smooth finish, supported by a jute ground.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Turkish kilim (kelim) pillow, flat-woven in coarse wool and coloured with vegetable dyes.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Mexican serape wool blanket.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Woven yak wool blanket, napped to raise the surface fibres into a lofty texture.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Woven wool blanket.
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Dyed wool upholstery, basket weave structure
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Mexican llama wool poncho
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Bang & Olufsen Beosound A9 featuring a Kvadrat Remix woven wool textile
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

Willow wicker basket base.

Willow wicker baskets by Klaus Titze.

Willow wicker baskets by Klaus Titze.

Fritz Hansen PK22 chair, by Poul Kjærholm, 1956, features brushed stainless steel structure and natural wicker seat

The National Assembly for Wales (also known as the Senedd), by Richard Rogers, 2005. The main funnel (known as the Oriel) and ceiling are clad with western red cedar. Each panel consists of several strips held in place by concealed fixings. To accommodate the varying radius of the shape, each panel has a trapezoidal profile.

Hinoki bathtub, Japan

Gubi 3D veneer chair, by Komplot Design, with rotary-cut beech veneer core and American Black walnut surface layers

KK44860 side table, designed by Kaare Klint for Carl Hansen & Søn, 1932, in oiled walnut

Electrical insulating ring produced by compression moulding glass fibre reinforced polyester resin dough moulding compound (DMC), with steel inserts.

The seat of the original Eames Molded Fiberglass chairs, by Charles and Ray Eames for Herman Miller, 1950, was produced with glass fibre reinforced polyester resin

Polymer concrete terrazzo with coloured marble shards.

Terrazzo countertop made with stones embedded in polyester resin, polished to a gloss finish.

Glass fibre reinforced polyester (UP-GF, GFRP) allows for the construction of large, sculptural elements on buildings. Structures like this are typically made with a framework in wood and metal, which is sprayed with glass fibres and polyester resin, finished and painted.

Truck body parts, formed from glass fibre reinforced polyester resin sheet moulding compound (SMC), and painted metallic silver

Paddleboard race fin, by John Becker for Larry Allison, using woven glass fibre reinforced polyester resin with colour

Clear casting polyester resin with encapsulated objects used for interiors and furniture

The Lotus x Hope HB.T 2020 Team GB Tokyo Olympic carbon fibre composite track bike. A range of carbon fibres are used, from standard to ultra high modulus, depending on the requirements of each specific part of the frame and assembly. Epoxy provides the strongest matrix. The headset and handlebars, as well as other components, are 3D printed titanium (Ti-6Al-4V). In collaboration with Lotus Engineering, Renishaw 3D printed the parts throughout the development process using aluminium alloy (AlSi10Mg), enabling the quick turnaround of design changes. Using carbon fibre for these parts is significantly slower and more restricted, because new moulds are required each time a change is made. With 3D printing, the components can be outputted directly from the updated CAD file.

The Aurora frame by No. 22 Bicycle Company is produced with high performance titanium alloy (grade 9, Ti 3-2.5). The colour of the frame is applied as part of the protective anodising process to ensure a long lasting and high quality finish. Image No. 22 Bicycle Company.

Lindberg Air Titanium glasses, created together with architectural firm Dissing+Weitling. These are the first rimless spectacles made of titanium alloy. They make use of a unique spiral hinge, which removes the need for screws, rivets and other unnecessary elements. Image Lindberg.

Lightweight glasses, featuring anodised titanium arms

Anodised titanium with surface treatment to increase grain size

Adidas Ultraboost running shoe, 2015, which uses expanded thermoplastic polyurethane (ETPU) in the sole. Originally developed for Puma by BASF, the eTPU sole technology was adopted by Adidas in 2013 and named Boost. The combination of softness and elasticity provide a high level of comfort and bounce. In addition to the ETPU sole, the Ultraboost shoe features a knitted polyester upper and TPU lace cage and moulded heel support.

Blundstone Chelsea boots featuring a calfskin leather upper and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) outsole.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of Desmopan thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) by Covestro. This family of materials offers high wear resistance, flexibility across a wide range of temperatures, and high elasticity over a wide hardness range. They also possesses excellent resistance to oils, greases, solvents and weathering.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of Apilon 52 bio-based thermoplastic polyurethane (bio-TPU). This family of material includes soft and rigid grades (ester, ether, ester-ether-based). The broad range of properties possible makes this material suitable for footwear and in leather goods. Beyond this Apilon 52 can also be used in automotive and engineering, cosmetics and personal care, medical, packaging, sporting goods, toys and gadgets.

Platilon partially-bio-based thermoplastic polyurethane (bio-TPU) film from BASF, welded to make an inflatable insulating jacket. Designed by Axis Design Studio.

TPU Evolution knitted trainer upper by Coatyarn. Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) textiles offer excellent resistance to abrasion, hydrolysis, UV rays, weathering, aging, wear and tear, combined with comfort and drape. As a thermoplastic it is recyclable and may be laminated with heat and pressure alone (without adhesive).

TPU Evolution knitted jacket by Coatyarn. Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) textiles offer excellent resistance to abrasion, hydrolysis, UV rays, weathering, aging, wear and tear, combined with comfort and drape. As a thermoplastic it is recyclable and may be laminated with heat and pressure alone (without adhesive).

Demgy and Decathlon sport shoe sole made with a mix of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), including 40% bio-based, 10% recycled and 50% virgin.

The Citroën C4 Cactus, with large, air-filled cushion bumpers in contrasting colours on the sides, front and rear. Injection moulded in scratch resistant, weatherproof and UV durable BASF Elastollan, the bumpers are left unpainted. Image Citroen.

Expanded thermoplastic polyurethane (ETPU) midsole. ETPU is known for its superior performance in footwear due to its durability and flexibility. Image Covestro.

Extruded pneumatic hose using BASF Elastollan thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). This grade combines the highly effective hydrolysis and microbial resistance of ether-based TPU with the excellent mechanical properties of ester TPU, suitable for food contact applications. Image BASF.

Orthopaedic insoles made of BASF Elastollan thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). The sole is produced by 3D printing, using fused deposition modelling (FDM), which makes it possible to produce an ultralight cushioning structure tailored to an individual's needs. A low density area can flow smoothly into firm support, helping to stabilise the foot. The open grid allows for breathability. As a shoe sole material, TPU offers excellent vibration dampening and resilience, even with fluctuating temperatures. Image BASF.

Orthopaedic insoles made of BASF Elastollan thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). The sole is produced by 3D printing, using fused deposition modelling (FDM), which makes it possible to produce an ultralight cushioning structure tailored to an individual's needs. A low density area can flow smoothly into firm support, helping to stabilise the foot. The open grid allows for breathability. As a shoe sole material, TPU offers excellent vibration dampening and resilience, even with fluctuating temperatures. Image BASF.

Moulded shoe soles with up to 30% recycled material. BASF has developed polyurethane resin (PUR) foams with thermoplastic properties that can be processed together with thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) in the injection moulding process. Image BASF.

Bicycle suspension link, injection moulded with long carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU-LCF30)

Fluorescent dyed thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) film for use in lamination, such as apparel, footwear and sports products. Produced by Ding Zing

Rossignol Alltrack Pro 130 ski boot shell (lower) and cuff (upper) featuring injection moulded thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), printed logo

A chair prototype demonstrator, made by Thermwood on a large format 3D printer - the print layers are visible. The material is 30% glass fibre reinforced polybutadiene terephthalate (PBT-GF30), polyester. The polyester is made by Sabic using 25% chemically recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET).

Transparent dichroic film. The reflected colours depend on the viewing angle. It is constructed from multiple layers of incredibly thin, vacuum deposition coating. Based on transparent polyester (PET) film, each layer reflects some of the light, causing light interference, which results in iridescent, shifting colour.

Earthic by Silestone (Cosentino) is a solid surface material for counter tops and cladding made with 30% recycled material. With a maximum of 10% silica, it contains recycled glass, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polyester, bio-based polyurethane resin (bio-PUR) and Dekton fragments (sintered stone). Additionally, it’s manufactured with 99% recycled water and 100% renewable energy.

Earthic by Silestone (Cosentino) is a solid surface material for counter tops and cladding made with 30% recycled material. With a maximum of 10% silica, it contains recycled glass, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polyester, bio-based polyurethane resin (bio-PUR) and Dekton fragments (sintered stone). Additionally, it’s manufactured with 99% recycled water and 100% renewable energy.

A sandwich panel consisting of 3D Core PET (a unique, high performance, conformable polyethylene terephthalate foam core material ideally suited to resin infusion) sandwiched between two layers of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic.

Stand-up pouches (SUP) like this are typically made with laminated polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, and low density polyethylene (LDPE). The laminated structure may be labelled (PET/PE) and is not recyclable. Pouches made with mono-layer LDPE, welded to create an airtight barrier, can be recycled. The reason LDPE is laminated with other plastics, like PET, is to increase barrier properties, such as oxygen and odour.

Sandwich panels consisting of a foamed polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, core. The skins shown here are glass fibre reinforced epoxy and aluminium sheet.

Yacht racing sail, featuring unidirectional aramid and carbon fibres, laminated between thin films of biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET), polyester. This combination produces an exceptionally lightweight sail capable of maintaining its flying shape even under extreme wind loads.

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), made up of polypropylene (PP), aluminium metallised polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, and an inner layer of weldable polyethylene (PE). While this multilayer structure offers excellent protection of food products, improving shelf life, it is impossible to separate and recycle the individual materials.

Multilayer film vacuum packaging, made up of aluminium metallised polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, and an inner layer of weldable polyethylene (PE). While this multilayer structure offers excellent protection against oxidisation and moisture, it is impossible to separate and recycle the individual materials.

Haig Club promotional packaging, in biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET), polyester, metallised and printed, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

3D printed plastic vases by 91-92 using recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET), polyester, from drinks bottles and packaging.

Blow moulded polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, Coca-Cola bottle made with renewable chemistry. Paraxylene was produced by Virent using their proprietary Bioforming process, which converts carbohydrates into hydrocarbons via catalytic conversion. Taiwan-based Far Eastern New Century then worked with Virent and Coca-Cola to convert the paraxylene into a renewable PET resin. Hydrocarbons made with the Virent Bioforming catalytic process are 100% bio-based and provide drop-in replacements for conventional petroleum chemistry. Image Coca-Cola.

Compression moulded thermoplastic composite baseplate made with recycled polyethylene terephthalate and woven glass fibre (rPET-GF) organo.

Thermoformed transparent polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, food packaging tray.

Lumisty is a film with a specially textured surface that changes the transparency depending on the angle of view. Based on biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET) polyester film, this kind of view control film is used in architecture laminated to glass, interiors, lighting and consumer electronics (privacy film on computer screens).

A panoramic car roof headliner (ceiling trim), with integrated structural bracket. Instead of using steel, the traditional material for this type of application, BASF and Grupo Antolin collaborated to produce a n injection moulded structural bracket using BASF Ultradur polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), thermoplastic polyester. This material is lighter than steel and allows for greater design freedom and streamlined assembly in production. Image by BASF.

Ocean by Smile Plastics, a sheet material designed for furniture and interior application, made from recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) packaging. Produced from 100% recycled material, it is fully recyclable end-of-life.

KeyKeg is a blow moulded drinks keg. It provides a single-use solution, which fits into the same recycling system as polyester (PET) drinks bottles. This is helpful for small business, who can't afford to invest in the returnable keg setup, and export (avoids repatriating kegs).

Meat packaging tray thermoformed from 90% recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, sheet

Thermoformed Airex polyester 100 kg/m3 foam core, with debossed logo

Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) shoe sole, based on styrene (SEBS), shaped by injection moulding. The upper of these high tops is produced from polyurethane resin (PUR) faux leather.

The Nike+ Fuelband activity tracker, launched 2012, is encapsulated within a thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) skin. A flexible circuit board is mounted onto an injection moulded polypropylene (PP) chassis. The whole assembly (circuit board, processor, sensors, antenna, USB connector and LED lights), but excluding the batteries, is placed into a mould and injection over-moulded with a TPE skin in a two-stage process (inside then outside).

Nike Running trainers featuring a foamed ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) sole with integrated thermoplastic rubber (TPR) outer layer based on styrene (SEBS), shaped by injection moulding.

Thermoplastic polyamide elastomer (TPA), nylon, film raincoat. The type of nylon exhibits a high moisture vapour transmission rate (MVTR), and so provides an alternative to PFAS-containing breathable fluoropolymer membranes, like Gore-Tex, for example.

A woven textile, produced with polypropylene-based elastomer (TPO) monofilaments

Iridescent earrings from Byfossdal, made with vacuum deposition coated polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

Dichroic film produces a myriad of reflected colours depending on the viewing angle. It is constructed from multiple layers of incredibly thin, vacuum deposition coating. This example is polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film with a black underside.

Jamie Oliver Flavour Shaker, 2007, manufactured by William Levene, features a twin-shot injection moulded PC/PET container, with TPC elastomer grip; and alumina ball for crushing the ingredients like a mortar.

Jabro end cutters by Seco Tools, designed especially for milling composites, are produced in solid tungsten carbide (WC) and the cutting tip vacuum deposition coated with synthetic diamond. Image by Seco Tools.

Anti-slip stair nose on the London Underground by AATI, in cast nickel bronze with embedded silicon carbide (SiC) particles for added grip and durability.

A high performance carbon fibre reinforced silicone carbide composite sandwich panel. It is a complex and high temperature manufacturing process, involving the forming of the carbon fibre and infiltration with molten silicone, which reacts to form the silicone carbide matrix.

Dekton sintered stone bathroom, with embedded faux marble print in an epoxy top layer. Produced by Cosentino.

Dekton sintered stone countertop, with embedded faux marble print in an epoxy top layer. Produced by Cosentino.

Dekton sintered stone kitchen countertop, produced by Cosentino.

Dekton sintered stone samples, with embedded faux marble print in an epoxy top layer. Produced by Cosentino.

Tube manufactured from high-purity alumina using isostatic pressing, followed by machining to ensure precise dimensions, prior to sintering.

Kyocera zirconia knife blade, formed by hot isostatic pressing and diamond polishing to a razor sharp edge

High-precision ring manufactured from high-purity alumina by isostatic pressing, followed by machining to ensure precise dimensions, prior to sintering.

Lean Back chair, by Arne Hovmand Olsen for Warm Nordic, 1957, in solid teak
Relevant materials
Wool, Sheep wool

CH24 Wishbone Chair, designed by Hans J. Wegner for Carl Hansen & Søn, 1949, in oiled teak with natural paper cord seat

A composition of teak in various shapes, including treated and unfinished, at Carl Hansen & Søn

Michelin Pilot Sport tyre. The two main synthetic rubbers in car tyres are polybutadiene rubber (BR) and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR). They are typically used in combination with around 20% natural rubber (NR). Tyres used in more demanding applications, such as trucks and aircraft, contain a higher proportion of natural rubber. A whole host of other materials and additives are used, including steel cable, reinforcing textile and fillers (predominately carbon black and silica for conductivity and enhanced resistance to tearing and abrasion) to give the desired performance. Image Michelin.

The core of a golf ball is typically polybutadiene (PB) or a blend of synthetic rubbers. A mantle is moulded around the core, creating a perfect sphere and providing a bridge between the rubber core and plastic cover. Softer balls may have more layers. The cover is moulded over the top with the characteristically dimpled texture. It is typically either polyurethane resin (PUR) or Surlyn ionomer. The graphics are pad (tampo) printed onto the cover and sealed with a high-gloss coating.

NRS paddle shoe. They are produced with Terraprene, a neoprene derived from limestone and recycled tyres. Other examples of neoprene made from limestone include Bioprene and Geoprene. Image NRS.

4 mm thick neoprene fabric for wetsuits.

Planks of sycamore

Bencore Starlight composite panel with macro-cellular translucent styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) core bonded with external layers in polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, offered in various finishes and standard colours. Also available with polycarbonate (PC) or polyester (PET) outer layers.

Braun transparent styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) kitchen blender bowl.

Bioplast 300 starch based bioplastic. Print coverage must be <5% to ensure compostability is maintained.

Rezign bio-based and recycled panels are made with waste textile, flax, hemp and starch-based biodegradable binder. Available in a range of formats, they are suitable for furniture, interiors and acoustic panels.

Avani home compostable packaging produced from cassava-derived starch bioplastic. Image Avani.

Arrow Greentech Bioplast 200 packaging film, which contains 30% potato starch. Image Arrow Greentech.

Paperfoam starch based bioplastic clamshell medical packaging.
Relevant materials
Starch, Foam, Paperfoam

Paperfoam starch based bioplastic packaging for shipping Philips electronics products.
Relevant materials
Starch, Foam, Paperfoam

Stainless steel watch strap, made with 316L and vacuum deposition coated to produce a bright gold and hardwearing finish.

Lavabo stainless steel sink, vacuum coated with a brass-coloured finish, to produce an extremely durable surface with a stable colour.

Mobile phone cover, featuring steel with two layers of colour produced by physical vapour deposition (PVD), which is laser etched to produce a graphic visual effect. Aluminium titanium nitride (AlTiN) provides the black, masking a layer of silver chromium nitride (CrN) below.

Gucci watch back plate, in stainless steel, chemical etched graphics, with titanium carbonitride (TiCN) coating for protection and to provide a very durable rose gold colour

Fuel cell bipolar plates, stamped in stainless steel. The sheet is pre-coated with physical vapour deposition (PVD) titanium nitride (TiN)

Mobile phone cover, featuring steel with two layers of colour produced by physical vapour deposition (PVD), which is laser etched to produce a graphic visual effect. A top layer of zirconium carbonitride (ZrCN) provides the blue colour, and is selectively removed to reveal the gold coloured zirconium nitride (ZrN) layer below.

Stardust particle, by Olafur Eliasson, 2014, is a hanging sculpture made up of a stainless steel structure and thin, partially reflective, vacuum-coated filter glass.

Spinks Springs micro spring held within pockets formed from warp knitted polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, spacer textile

iPhone 4 bezel, forged from stainless steel, CNC machined and over-moulded with glass fibre reinforced nylon (PA-GF)

iPhone 4 bezel, forged from stainless steel, CNC machined, laser welded and over-moulded with glass fibre reinforced nylon (PA-GF)

Stainless steel brake discs on the Rein4ced Hardtail cross country mountain bike.

Stainless steel wire mesh, type 304, used for architectural cladding, facades and fences, as well as interior room dividers and covers.

Deep drawn stainless steel mixing bowls by WMF.

Knitted stainless steel 304 fabric for upholstery, interiors and apparel by Inntex, embossed with a floral motif. Photo courtesy of Inntex.

ReformCPH kitchen countertop, with seamless welded sink, in 304 stainless steel.

Arcs mirror by Muller Van Severen for Hay, 2023, in mirror polished stainless steel.

Chemically coloured and quilted stainless steel sheet, used in architectural cladding, interiors, signage, catering, luggage and furniture. Chemical colouring produces intense colours (interference) on the surface of stainless steel by enhancing the naturally occurring layer of chromium oxide.

Chemically coloured and embossed stainless steel sheet, used in architectural cladding, interiors, signage, catering, luggage and furniture. Chemical colouring produces intense colours (interference) on the surface of stainless steel by enhancing the naturally occurring layer of chromium oxide.

Polished, chemically coloured and selectively etched stainless steel sheet, used in architectural cladding, interiors, signage, catering, luggage and furniture. Chemical colouring produces intense colours (interference) on the surface of stainless steel by enhancing the naturally occurring layer of chromium oxide.

Embossed, chemically coloured and selectively etched (pattern) stainless steel sheet, used in architectural cladding, interiors, signage, catering, luggage and furniture. Chemical colouring produces intense colours (interference) on the surface of stainless steel by enhancing the naturally occurring layer of chromium oxide.

Embossed stainless steel sheet, used in architectural cladding, interiors, signage, catering, luggage and furniture.

Stamped and punched Kalistò tray in stainless steel, by Clare Brass for Alessi, 1992.

Mandrel bending stainless steel tube.

Puma bike, by Vexed Generation and manufactured by Biomega, 2004, with a type 410 martensitic stainless steel brake disk

Leatherman Wave, which features type 420 (420HC) martensitic stainless steel

Boat towing and lifting cable (twisted wire), and forged shackle, produced with 316 stainless steel, suitable for long term exposure to salt water marine environment

Chemically coloured stainless steel, used on building facades and signage. The result of an electrochemical process, the colour is structural and so can flip depending on the thickness and angle of view. It is resistant to corrosion, enhancing the natural durability of stainless steel, and the range of colours includes red, green, blue, gold, bronze and black.

iPhone 4 bezel, forged from stainless steel, prior to CNC machining. Forging produces the strongest possible bezel, because the grain of the steel is optimised and the structure hardened.

Vertu mobile phone cover, machined from stainless steel and welded

Stainless steel jewellery formed by metal injection moulding (MIM)

Stainless steel formed by metal injection moulding (MIM)

Pressed steel cover, etched and in-filled with enamel paint

Pressed steel cover, etched and in-filled with enamel paint

Parmigiano Reggiano cheese mould in perforated stainless steel

Georg Jensen Panton dish in bright polished stainless steel

Unfinished camera body in hydroformed steel

Stages in the hydroforming process, using stainless steel tube

Honeycomb structured thin sheet stainless steel

Your spiral view, Olafur Eliasson, 2002, is fabricated from folded stainless steel

3M Elipar S10 LED curing light features a hydroformed stainless steel body, produced from a seamless welded tube.

One of the largest timber structures in Denmark, Marmormolen by Henning Larsen under construction in 2024, is 8 storeys and 28,000 m2. It is constructed with glued laminated timber (glulam) and cross-laminated timber (CLT).

Yakisugi (焼杉), sometimes also known as shou sugi ban outside Japan, is a wood burning technique that has been used for centuries in Japan to extend the lifespan of wood in exterior applications. It was conceived before chemical treatments were available as a means of improving the longevity of wood by preventing decay, insect and mould infestation, while making planks more dimensionally stable and improving fire resistance. Typically used for siding and cladding on exteriors, the surface may be sealed and oiled for interior use, furniture and products.

Structural finger join in glulam engineered wood beams.

Superwood is spruce impregnated with fungicide and preservative to make it suitable for exterior use. Conventional impregnation applies force to liquid to treat the outermost layer of wood and so any cut or damage exposes the bare timber beneath. Superwood have developed a different technique, which allows them to apply treatment throughout the thickness of the timber, making it more efficient and effective. They take locally sourced spruce and apply the treatment using carbon dioxide (CO2) at temperature and pressure that causes it to become supercritical. In this state, there is no surface tension and the CO2 is able to pass through the wood without resistance, carrying the preservative chemistry and impregnating the wood from within. The colour of the wood is unaffected by the treatment, and will develop a typical silver patina over time, which allows light colour paints and stains to be used.

Superwood is spruce impregnated with fungicide and preservative to make it suitable for exterior use. Conventional impregnation applies force to liquid to treat the outermost layer of wood and so any cut or damage exposes the bare timber beneath. Superwood have developed a different technique, which allows them to apply treatment throughout the thickness of the timber, making it more efficient and effective. They take locally sourced spruce and apply the treatment using carbon dioxide (CO2) at temperature and pressure that causes it to become supercritical. In this state, there is no surface tension and the CO2 is able to pass through the wood without resistance, carrying the preservative chemistry and impregnating the wood from within. The colour of the wood is unaffected by the treatment, and will develop a typical silver patina over time, which allows light colour paints and stains to be used.

Peikko’s timber-based hybrid construction solutions include a range of standardised connections that enable connecting timber, steel and concrete seamlessly and reliably in large and heavy structures. In this case, a Bramco beam shoe on the end of the glulam beam connects with the Ramco hidden corbel in the vertical, multistorey column.

Thermory thermally modified timber (TMT) cladding, produced with spruce.

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), with all the layers running parallel for maximum strength to weight along the length.

Spruce decking boards pressure-impregnated with copper-based preservative. It is not a durable material, and will not last long outdoors if left untreated.

Spruce decking boards. It is not a durable material, and will not last long outdoors if left untreated.

Gymnasium glulam roof structure in a gymnasium, by Flexwood

Expo roof, Hannover, Germany, completed 2000, designed by Herzog + Partner, featuring laminated veneer lumber (LVL), glulam triangular braces and solid silver fir uprights. Each of the ten 'umbrellas' covers an area of 1,600 m2 (40 by 40 m) and stands around 26 m high. The wooden elements are fixed together with steel brackets and castings. A waterproof membrane, suspended 50 mm above the roof, protects the wood from being permanently damp.

Oslo Airport, Norway, completed 1998, designed by Nordic Office of Architecture, features a glulam roof beams, supported by concrete and steel columns.

Olso Airport Train Station, completed 2017, designed by Nordic Office of Architecture, features a glulam roof structure.

nh light, designed by Neri & Hu for Artemide, features a blown glass diffuser and brass hanging hook

Romeo Moon light, by Philippe Starck for Flos, 1996, features a pressed glass shade over a pressed and acid etched borosilicate diffuser.

Absolut Vodka packaged in transparent glass with clear printed labels. Highly transparent glass, known as flint, appears water clear as a result of the chemistry and purity of the ingredients.
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Recycled glass side table made with Glasskeramik. Image Magna.

Handmade glass vase, mouthblown into a wooden mould.
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DEE Glass Pendant by Bønnelycke MDD for Nordlux, 2016, features a blown glass shade, etched (frosted) to diffuse the light and conceal the light source.
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Soda lime glass, Glass

A Drop D'Issey perfume packaging, by Todd Bracher Studio for Issey Miyake, uses recycled glass. The purity of glass needed for high quality perfume packaging has traditionally prevented the use of recycled glass. This is because the iron impurity in post-consumer recycled (PCR) glass is too high, which affects transparency and shine. With new sorting and manufacturing technology, it is now possible to produce high transparency glass from recycled PCR material. Image Todd Bracher Studio.

Glass sink with matt top coat and white backside colour, to create a feeling of depth and softness in the reflections. It is more difficult to maintain a clean looking surface on a high gloss surface.
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Soda lime glass, Glass

Blown glass bottles with orange painted base. A frosted, or matt, finish, is produced by chemical etching or painting. Chemical etching involves the use of very aggressive ingredients and a great deal of water. As a result, chemical frosting is being phased out and replaced with painting, which is a bit more expensive but much less harmful to people and the planet.
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Maida passata packaged in flint glass with a dipped wax seal
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Handblown mottled glass light shade, made by rolling the hot glass in coloured powder during forming
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Soda lime glass, Glass

Normann Cosmic plates, in hand blown coloured glass
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Soda lime glass, Glass

Beadazzled flexible glass bead wall covering, bonded onto nonwoven polyester fabric, handmade by Maya Romanoff
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Soda lime glass, Glass

Slate colours.

Black slate cladding.

Slate cladding in Cornwall, UK

Fernando Laposse is a designer who works with traditional materials in his home country of Mexico to make furniture and objects. This "hairy" furniture is made with sisal, derived from the leaves of the agave (tequila) plant.

Handwoven sisal by La Maison Afrique Fair Trade.

Handwoven sisal by La Maison Afrique Fair Trade.

Silver coated nonwoven embossed polyamide (PA), nylon. The thin metal layer is applied by chemical vapour deposition (CVD). These materials are used for shielding applications in products and interiors.

Devoré relies on the chemical incompatibility of two types of fibre, such as protein and cellulose, so that one can be dissolved while the other remains intact. In this case, silk and linen (flax). The devorant paste is applied by screen printing, acting as a mask, protecting areas of the flax from the chemical etching process.

LED dress, Autumn/Winter 2007 collection, by Hussein Chalayan. A wearable LED display beneath chiffon silk covered in Swarovski crystals

Digital printed sheer fabric made up of 73% cotton 27% silk.

Køben silk lined cotton denim jeans, by T Hughes.

Moire effect in satin-woven silk.

Warp printed silk fabric. This printing technique involves printing the warp before the final weaving. As a result, the finished pattern has undefined edges and the quality is largely dependent on the skill of the weaver.

Prelle pure silk velvet fabric samples.

Plain woven silk, with slub yarns to produce a textured finish.

Woven silk, with the slightly different colour warp and weft producing an iridescent effect.

Jacquard weaving figured silk fabric at Prelle, France

TIPSiV injection moulded elastomer is a hybrid of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and silicone produced by Dow Corning. It combines the benefits of TPU with the unique tactility and durability of silicone. It takes colour well and is resistant to fading.

Animal rubber bands, by D-Bros for H Concept, in extruded silicone

Hay ice cube tray, in colourful press moulded silicone

Reusable silicone membrane for low-pressure moulding onto a single-sided carbon fibre epoxy mould, manufactured by Krempel Group

Silicon used in the production of chips.

Silicon wafers.

Solar by artist Honey Biba Beckerlee is a ceramic mosaic covered in a glaze made out of waste silicon dust from the microchip industry.

Silestone engineered quartz artificial stone sink produced by Cosentino. The patterns and effects run through the thickness of the slab, so the surface can be cut and polished and the pattern remains.

Silestone engineered quartz artificial stone counter top produced by Cosentino. The patterns and effects run through the thickness of the slab, so the surface can be cut and polished and the pattern remains.

Silestone engineered quartz artificial stone counter top produced by Cosentino. The patterns and effects run through the thickness of the slab, so the surface can be cut and polished and the pattern remains.

Silica aerogel super lightweight foam

Agoprene foam made with seaweed bioplastic.

Evoware edible seaweed based bioplastic food wrap.

Kelsun seaweed based bioplastic fibre is made up of 75% kelp derived biopolymer and an additive package that creates a material which can be spun into a fibre with useful properties and low carbon footprint.

Kelsun seaweed based bioplastic fibre is made up of 75% kelp derived biopolymer and an additive package that creates a material which can be spun into a fibre with useful properties and low carbon footprint.

The Myth of Nature, by Jessie French (Other Matter), exhibited at 23rd Biennale of Sydney, 2022. Sheets of coloured seaweed algae-based bioplastic. Image Jessica Maurer.

Seaweed algae-based moulded bioplastic tableware, 2020, by Jessie French (Other Matter), winner of the Jardan Prize, Victorian Craft Awards 2022. Image Pier Carthew.

Sway seaweed based bioplastic packaging samples. Image Sway.

Evoware edible seaweed based bioplastic food wrap.

Bell & Ross BR 126 Heritage watch featuring a curved anti-reflective sapphire window, CNC machined steel body and calfskin leather strap. The steel is coated black by physical vapour deposition (PVD), to create a very durable colour finish. Image Bell & Ross.

Bell & Ross aviation watch featuring an anti-reflective sapphire window and CNC machined steel body. The steel is coated black by physical vapour deposition (PVD), to create a very durable colour finish. Image Bell & Ross.

CNC machined sapele panel, reinforced with medium-density fibreboard (MDF)

Decorative sapele veneer

Plaza Mayor in Salamanca, Spain, built entirely from Villamayor stone, a type of blond sandstone found in the deep quarries in the region of Castile-León.

Rattan canes.

Traditional Anjat basket, handwoven in Borneo from split cane

Basket lounge chair, by Jo Colombo for Gubi, in hand-woven rattan over a steel frame

Crochet raffia bag.

Thermory Thermowood aspen acoustic wall cladding. The sapwood is very light and uniform with a subtle grain. The sample at the bottom of the image is thermally modified (TMT). Heating the wood to 180-230 degC alters the colour of the wood, whilst improving resistance to decay and insect attack.

Thermory Thermowood aspen wall cladding. Thermally modified timber (TMT) has been heated to 180-230 degC in a controlled atmosphere. This process reduces the moisture content to around 5% and in doing so permanently alters the wood's chemistry by cooking off the sugars (hemicellulose). This results in a much more durable timber, resistant to decay and insect attack, and lower thermal transfer.

Match sticks, cut from poplar (aspen) veneer and stained black before the match head is applied by dip coating

Nelson Bubble Lamp, by George Nelson for Herman Miller, 1952, formed by spraying a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) mixed with a webbing agent (which causes the PVC to form filaments) onto a steel wire frame, and finished with a layer of pure PVC spray coating

Number 4 department store bag, designed by Baluba, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Screen printed Tyvek outer and metallised polyvinyl chloride (PVC) lining. Image courtesy of Progress Packaging.

Jelly yarn made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The fluorescent dye emphasised the edge glow effect, lighting up the ends like a fibre optic cable.

Loop pile cushion carpet, made from continuous extruded polyvinyl chloride (PVC) filaments.

NEON by Victionary, 2013, features a printed polyvinyl chloride (PVC) softcover.

Art Basel PVC carrier bag, designed by Barnbrook, manufactured by Progress Packaging, stitched label. Image Progress Packaging.

Patera pendant lamp by Øivind Slaatto for Louis Poulsen, 2015, features a diffuser assembled from die-cut sheets of white polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Art Basel PVC carrier bag, designed by Barnbrook, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

Your rainbow panorama, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark, completed 2011, created by Olafur Eliasson, features glass laminated with a composition of up to four coloured polyvinyl butyral (PVB) foils (Vanceva colour system)

Your rainbow panorama, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark, completed 2011, created by Olafur Eliasson, features glass laminated with a composition of up to four coloured polyvinyl butyral (PVB) foils (Vanceva colour system)

Your rainbow panorama, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark, completed 2011, created by Olafur Eliasson, features glass laminated with a composition of up to four coloured polyvinyl butyral (PVB) foils (Vanceva colour system).

Seating on aeroplanes is typically moulded polyurethane resin (PUR) with a wool upholstery cover

The Tesla Model 3 features Tabu wood veneer, dyed to look like walnut, laminated onto an injection moulded carrier. The instrument panel (dashboard) consists of an injection moulded structure, soft foam layer and durable surface foil. The materials for this type of dashboard are typically polycarbonate alloy (PC/ABS) carrier, polyurethane resin (PUR) foam, and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) foil.

BASF Elastopan polyurethane resin (PUR) moulded directly onto fabric. Applied in footwear and protective clothing, for example, it offer excellent physical properties like flexibility, abrasion and hydrolysis resistance, durability and low density.

BASF Elastopan polyurethane resin (PUR) moulded directly onto fabric. Applied in footwear and protective clothing, for example, it offer excellent physical properties like flexibility, abrasion and hydrolysis resistance, durability and low density.

Cross section through an automotive instrument panel (dashboard) featuring BASF Elastoflex polyurethane resin (PUR) foam. This is a safety critical part of the design, as well as important visual and tactile aspect, sitting in front of the driver. In must be able to tolerate some demanding conditions - temperature extremes, direct sunlight and heat through the windshield - while maintaining its appearance for the life of the vehicle. They are made with various material technologies, such as with unpainted polypropylene (PP), or as is the case with higher spec vehicles like this example, using PUR foam between an injection moulded structural carrier and tactile surface foil. The foam bonds the carrier, which is typically PP or polycarbonate blended with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC/ABS), to the surface foil to create a smooth profile with soft touch feel. Surface foils include thermoplastic olefin (TPO), and slush moulded thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Image BASF.

Hvisk handbag in Leap alternative leather. This 89% bio-based textile is made with a three-layer structure comprising a Tencel Lyocell regenerated cellulose backing fabric, apple waste natural rubber blend middle layer that is plastic-free but not 100% bio-based, and partially bio-based BASF polyurethane (PUR) coating for durability.

Vegaplac veneer substitute bio-based composite made with agricultural waste (palm fibre residue and banana fibre) mixed with bio-based polyurethane resin (bio-PUR). The PUR is based on castor oil. Made in Brazil, distributed by Bark Cloth.

Waste vegan leather made with bio-based polyurethane resin (bio-PUR) and waste tea leaves. A durable and resilient material, it is suitable for applications in fashion, apparel, interiors, furniture, upholstery and automotive.

The Adidas Tilt 350 pro boxing gloves feature Desserto cactus leather, which is produced using fibres extracted from the Nopal cactus (also known as the prickly pear) mixed with PU-based resin. The cacti are grown on a ranch in Mexico without chemicals or irrigation, where they are harvested and converted into fabric. Image Adidas.

NIO car seats feature BASF Haptex artificial leather made with polyurethane resin (PUR). This is the first PUR made without organic solvents, which helps to ensure higher interior air quality. Image BASF.

BASF Haptex artificial leather made with polyurethane resin (PUR). It is a very durable textile used in many different applications, such as footwear, fashion, furniture upholstery and automotive interiors. Image BASF.

Decorative architrave for interior finishing, in moulded polyurethane resin (PUR) foam, covered with paper.

Big Pile of Bricks, by Niko June. Polyether-based polyurethane resin (PUR) medium-porosity foam sponge, hand dyed with acrylic.

The Metropol Parasol, Seville, Spain, by Jürgen Mayer H and engineered by Arup, completed 2011. One of the largest wooden structures ever built, it is made from Kerto laminated veneer lumber (LVL) with a polyurethane resin (PUR) weather resistant coating.

Polyurethane resin (PUR) upholstery foam, cut from sheets and adhesive bonded

Cast polyurethane resin (PUR) gradient by Make Material. Image by Make Material.

Türstopper (door stopper), by Nairy Baghramian, cast in coloured polyurethane resin (PUR)

Uvex logo featuring Royalplast film-cast polyurethane resin (PUR) over screen-printed graphics

Memory foam (viscoelastic) polyurethane resin (PUR) is common in mattresses, upholstery and backpack padding. It is an open cell flexible foam, 30-100 kg/m3, characterised by slow recovery rate after deformation. This property is also particularly useful in hospital beds, to prevent pressure injuries in patients immobilised for long periods.

Cast polyurethane resin (PUR) gradients by Make Material. Image by Make Material.

Medical application utilising injection moulded polysulfone (PSU) engineering plastic

Epson printer waste ink tank, injection moulded in high impact polystyrene (HIPS, PS-HI) and filled with non-woven polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, microfibre absorbent material.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of Viro polystyrene (PS) combined with UBQ additive (32%). The feedstock for UBQ is household waste, which is largely comprised of organic materials – everything from food residues and mixed plastics to cardboard, paper, and even dirty diapers, that would have otherwise been sent to landfill or incineration. Using this additive reduces the amount of plastic required, lowering the overall carbon footprint of parts.

Marvellous bookshelves made by architects Iryna Tsyoma and Ole Storjohann from oak and Good Plastic Company Timeless Duo recycled polystyrene (rPS) panels. Image Good Plastic Company.

Polygood recycled interior panels, light colour range. The panels are manufactured by the Good Plastic Company using 100% post consumer recycled polystyrene (rPS). Image Good Plastic Company.

Polygood recycled interior panels in the Student Hotel. The panels are manufactured by the Good Plastic Company using 100% post consumer recycled polystyrene (rPS). Image Good Plastic Company.

Epson printer ink cartridge, injection moulded in high impact polystyrene (HIPS, PS-HI).

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) ice cream packaging by Imballaggi Alimentari, which utilises BASF Styropor Ccycled. Produced from pyrolysis oil that is made from chemically recycling waste plastic, BASF claims that this reduces the CO2 emitted by 50% compared to regular EPS packaging.
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Black expanded polystyrene (EPS) insulation is made with added graphite. The advantage of this material, BASF Neopor graphite polystyrene (GPS), is that not only does it slow down heat transfer the same as EPS, but the graphite additive reflects the heat internally. This further increases the insulation efficiency of the material. It contains 10% recycled material.

Injection moulded model Airfix aeroplane, in metallic coloured polystyrene (PS)

Expanded polypropylene (EPP) over-moulded with polyurethane resin (PUR). This type of direct coating, using a rubber-like PUR with texture, is used to create tactile surfaces for automotive interiors.

An outdoor carpet, in nonwoven polypropylene (PP), with polyurethane resin (PUR) nubs on the backside to keep the fabric off the floor and so allow water to drain away.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of Green Isofil by Sirmax. It is a mixture of recycled and virgin polypropylene with 20% talc (rPP-MD20). It contains at least 50% recycled post consumer (PCR) material.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of UPM Formi EcoAce bio-based polypropylene (bio-PP) reinforced with 50% wood fibre. This material is produced from bio-based naphtha, which is made from crude tall oil, a byproduct of the paper pulp process. The bio-composite version contains certified wood fibre (40-60%) or cellulose fibres (30-50%). Based almost entirely on renewable materials, it provides a drop-in replacement for fossil-based PP. It is recyclable and suitable for food contact applications.

A motorcycle seat base injection moulded from glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF) thermoplastic composite, featuring in-mould woven unidirectional tape. Created as a joint project between Engel and Austrian motorcycle manufacturer KTM Technologies, the new seat base combines a greater stiffness, despite a more compact part design and less weight, with low production costs.

Press-moulded sandwich panel from ThermHex EconCore polypropylene (PP) honeycomb sandwich panel for automotive interior application. The PP core is sandwiched between PP skins and over-moulded with PP to create features on the edge. PP is used throughout, ensuring the product remains fully recyclable as a monomaterial.

Expanded polypropylene (EPP) moulded into an injection moulded PP shell. The rigid PP outer provides a visual surface that protects the EPP from indentation and provides additional rigidity.

Wütop DB 300 from Würth is a high vapour permeable and windproof roof construction membrane. It is designed to provide complete protection against condensation when used in combination with a vapour barrier applied to the room side of the insulation layer. It is made up of polypropylene (PP) nonwoven fleece welded to microporous PP film layers.

CrushGrind salt and pepper mill. Cross section through the injection moulded housing, which is made with UPM Formi EcoAce, a bio-based polypropylene (bio-PP) reinforced with cellulose fibre.

Press-moulded sandwich panel from ThermHex EconCore polypropylene (PP) honeycomb sandwich panel, for automotive interior application. The PP core is sandwiched between PP skins ensuring the product remains fully recyclable as a monomaterial.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of Prime Flex by Made of Air. While the polymer matrix is bio-based, the additive is produced from biochar that is derived from waste wood biomass leftover from production. If the sequestered carbon of the wood is taken into account then this results in a carbon negative product.

Wütop DB 20 from Würth is an interior roof film, used in construction, that provides an airtight, vapour-permeable (diffusive), water barrier layer. It is a three layer construction made of up high density polyethylene (HDPE) printed film top layer, reinforcing mesh, and polypropylene (PP) fleece backing layer, welded together. It prevents saturation of the thermal insulation with moisture on the room side, helping to maintain the most efficient insulation values.

Looking inside a typical sun visor, which contains an injection moulded PC/ABS structure, and the cavity is filled with moulded expanded polypropylene (EPP), which provides a durable and lightweight body.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of AgriPlast bio-composite by Biowert. This material is made up of recycled industrial polypropylene (rPP) mixed with up to 75% cellulose fibres obtained from meadow grass.

Injection moulded bio-composite sunglasses frames using AgriPlast by Biowert. This material is made up of recycled industrial polypropylene (rPP) mixed with up to 75% cellulose fibres obtained from meadow grass. Image Biowert.

A composite bolster for Daimler by Valeo Thermal Systems, designed to replace a hybrid steel plastic moulding. The bio-based composite solution consists of flax reinforced polypropylene (PP-FF) woven unidirectional tape over-moulded with glass fibre reinforced PP (PP-GF). Compared to the hybrid steel weight is reduced by around 40% and the CO2 footprint reduced by around 40%, while part price is increased around 15%.

Nonwoven compressed flax fibre and polypropylene (PP-FF) panel for automotive interior applications. With heat and pressure, the PP fibre melts and bonds the flax fibres together to make a lightweight and impact resistant panel. Moulded by Weav3D.

Beltline stiffener door component manufactured by Weav3D and Braskem using a mix of unidirectional glass fibre and carbon fibre, combined with polypropylene (PP-GF and PP-CF). This component was designed to replace a carbon fibre reinforced polyamide (PA-CF), nylon, saving 23% weight and 50% cost. The PA-CF solution was originally designed to replace steel.

Part of a beltline stiffener door component manufactured by Weav3D and Braskem using a mix of unidirectional glass fibre and carbon fibre, combined with polypropylene (PP-GF and PP-CF). This component was designed to replace a carbon fibre reinforced polyamide (PA-CF), nylon, saving 23% weight and 50% cost. The PA-CF solution was originally designed to replace steel.

Rofi demining face mask, providing ballistic protection when clearing mine fields. The mask is produced from 5 mm thick compression moulded DIT Weaving self-reinforced polypropylene (SR-PP), the eye protection is 5 mm clear polycarbonate (PC) and the sun visor is acrylic coated acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS-PMMA).

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of polypropylene (PP) combined with UBQ additive (20%). The feedstock for UBQ is household waste, which is largely comprised of organic materials – everything from food residues and mixed plastics to cardboard, paper, and even dirty diapers, that would have otherwise been sent to landfill or incineration. Using this additive reduces the amount of plastic required, lowering the overall carbon footprint of parts.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of DuraSense Eco 40% wood-filled polypropylene (PP-40WF). Aimed at injection moulded luxury packaging, it is possible to combine the wood fibres with bioplastics, such as polylactic acid (PLA), resulting in a higher proportion of renewable content.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of Borealis Borcycle recycled polypropylene (rPP). It is mechanical recycled using a process that ensures light colours are possible.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of UPM Formi EcoAce bio-based polypropylene (bio-PP). This material is produced from bio-based naphtha, which is made from crude tall oil, a byproduct of the paper pulp process. The bio-composite version contains certified wood fibre (40-60%) or cellulose fibres (30-50%). Based almost entirely on renewable materials, it provides a drop-in replacement for fossil-based PP. It is recyclable and suitable for food contact applications.

Injection moulded hubcaps that combine Oryzite (rice husk based bio-filler) and polypropylene (PP). It can be combined with many types of plastic. Using bio-filler reduces plastic consumption and can have some beneficial impacts on mechanical properties and price. However, it means the plastic is unlikely to be recycled end of life. As well as automotive, it is used in many applications already including packaging, product enclosures, pallets and household items. Image Oryzite.

Sustaign recycled polypropylene (rPP) sheet material. The large panels of recycled plastic are handcrafted by Sustaign and converted into sheets with pressure and heat. Once formed, they are cut to shape and size by CNC machining. Maximum sheet size is 2350 x 1150 mm. Image Sustaign.

Anqa Studios Moorise Collection, 2022, in Sustaign recycled material. The large panels of recycled plastic are handcrafted by Sustaign and converted into sheets with pressure and heat. Once formed, they are cut to shape and size by CNC machining. Image Sustaign.

A fabric lined polypropylene glass fibre (PP-GF) composite headliner, formed by low-pressure compression moulding. The PP-GF core creates a very lightweight and resilient structure.

Graf PK39000 ice hockey skate featuring moulded self-reinforced polypropylene (SR-PP) rear quarter panels produced by DIT Weaving.

A honeycomb development from ThermHex. Made in exactly the same way as the current EconCore technology, the wavy profile improves the stability of the honeycomb wall, enhancing strength to weight and compressive strength by up to 2x at low densities.

Sample of Roctool compression moulded polypropylene reinforced with recycled nonwoven carbon fibre (PP-CF40) to show print-though of fibre texture using various engraved Mold-Tech surface finishes.

Etimex Purelay blister pack produced from a single polymer to ensure ease of recycling. This monomaterial polypropylene (PP) solution provides an alternative to the conventional polyvinyl chloride (PVC) blisters with aluminium push-through film. Image Etimex.

Nature Line reusable wood fibre cutlery by Akvila Cutlery is made of injection moulded UPM Formi EcoAce bio-based composite. This material is made up of certified wood and cellulose fibres as well as bio-based polypropylene (bio-PP) produced from wood-based feedstock. According to the manufacturer, this new cutlery line has over 90 % smaller carbon footprint than cutlery made of fossil-based plastics for single use. Image UPM.

Bao Bao Issey Miyake’s Dazzle bag is constructed from injection moulded, transparent polypropylene (PP) units that connect via overlapping tabs. Designed for longevity, it can be repaired by replacing units. Image Bao Bao Issey Miyake.

Hand-pleated polypropylene (PP) foil lampshade.

Closed cell polypropylene (PP) foam.

Corrugated polypropylene (PP) sandwich panels, which are used in stationary, retail and other semi-structural applications.

Kupilka camping cup, by Heikki Koivurova and Kari Kuisma, injection moulded in polypropylene biocomposite, reinforced with 50% cellulose fibres (PP-L50). Kareline natural fibre composite, developed by Wood Technology Centre Puugia, is manufactured with cellulose fibres extracted from pine wood. It is manufactured by Plasthill Oy.

Xbrick seat cube in expanded polypropylene (EPP), which uses texture and pattern on the surface to conceal to visual foam structure.

Expanded polypropylene (EPP) over-moulded onto stamped steel plate.

Close-up of meltblown polypropylene (PP). The ultra fine fibres are welded in a diamond pattern to lock them in place. This kind of textile is used for personal protective equipment (PPE), such as face masks, as well as filtration (ink cartridges) and acoustic insulation (kitchen appliances and automotive).

Easy chair, by Jerszy Seymour for Magis, 2004. Injection moulded glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF20).

Easy chair, by Jerszy Seymour for Magis, 2004. Injection moulded glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF20). The underside features a truss structure, which increases stiffness without adding much material.

Con-Pearl, a fluted polypropylene (PP) panel manufactured by FriedolaTECH. It is lightweight panel made up of three layers of PP: a thermoformed middle layer sandwiched between two outer sheets. It is stable, impact resistant, weather resistant and 100% recyclable. Used in packaging and automotive design, it can be returned at the end of its life and recycled into new Con-Pearl.

Glass fibre and polypropylene woven fabric, consolidated with heat and vacuum pressure to form a tough and lightweight thermoplastic composite (PP-GF60). It is used in automotive, motorsport and marine applications.

Military boat hull, produced with glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF60) thermoplastic composite. It is incredible tough and resilient for its weight - critical requirements for the front section of high speed landing craft

Selective laser sintered (SLS) polypropylene (PP) prototype

Twill-woven glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF60) textile. Before it is consolidated with heat and pressure to form a rigid composite, it is highly drapeable and so able to conform to the mould.

Injection moulded talc filled polypropylene (PP-T20) sample, to show the reproduction of detail from the etched surface of a mould

A roll of non-crimp (unidirectional) glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF60) textile, before consolidation (heat and pressure). The unidirectional fibres are laid at 45 and -45 deg, top and bottom.

Recycled polypropylene (PP) packaging material

Cross-section through thermoformed (vacuum formed) polypropylene (PP) foam

Trampoline fabric in monofilament polypropylene (PP) basket weave, calendered (fused with heat and pressure between polished rolls) to reduce movement between the fibres, and screen printed with white logo. The PP is UV stabilised, so it can tolerate weathering for 10 years or more

Cross-section through lightweight injection moulded polypropylene (PP) foam panel

Cross-section through lightweight injection moulded polypropylene (PP) foam panel

Injection moulded talc-filled polypropylene (PP-T10) demonstrating moulded colours and surface finishes without secondary processes

Unidirectional glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF60) tape for compression moulded thermoplastic composite

Disposable hospital privacy curtains, produced from spunbonded polypropylene (PP), pleated with heat and pressure

Conscious Chair 3162 back rests, by Børge Mogensen & Esben Klint for Mater, made from recycled polypropylene (PP) mixed with industrial waste

Eternity chair, by Space Copenhagen for Mater, is made from Matek recycled polypropylene (PP) mixed with coffee waste

Shade bin, by Thomas Bentzen for Hay, injection moulded polypropylene (PP)

High speed compression moulded polypropylene with continuous glass fibre reinforcement (PP-GF60) using Roctool’s induction heating mould technology.

Extruded wood plastic composite (WPC) decking made up of polypropylene (PP) filled with wood flour

Polypropylene (PP) knitted fabric moulded with heat and pressure to form a permanent 3D structure

Injection moulded talc-filled polypropylene (PP-T20) using a mould with a surface texture that faithfully mimics leather including stitching. PP is cost effective and helps to maintain a cohesive material theme throughout an interior, because it can be used unpainted in many parts. For example, instrument panel (dashboard), door panel and pillar covers, which are in contact with one another. It may be combined with foam injection moulding (such as Mucell) to create lightweight structural parts with a TPO foil skin for the tactile surface. Using materials with similar chemistry enables higher rates of recycling.

Rugged flight case manufactured with injection moulded glass fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF)

Compression moulded kitesurf harness, featuring multi-colour self-reinforced polypropylene (SR-PP), manufactured by DIT Weaving

Eames Plastic Armchair DAL, designed by Charles & Ray Eames for Vitra, 1950, features nylon hopsack woven fabric on a glass-fibre reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF) shell

Automotive headlight housing, injection moulded talc filled polypropylene (PP-T20)

Suitcase featuring moulded self-reinforced polypropylene (SR-PP), manufactured by DIT Weaving

Injection moulded polyphenylene sulfide with 40% glass fibre (PPS-GF40)

Produced by PyraSied in cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, with encapsulated wool and cotton yarn.

Lightfalls by Todd Bracher Studio for 3M. A moulded acrylic light reflector covers a single LED bulb. To create the coloured effects, 3M dichroic film (vacuum deposition coated polyester film) is placed over the light source. Image Todd Bracher Studio.

Lightfalls by Todd Bracher Studio for 3M. A moulded acrylic light reflector covers a single LED bulb. The light is scattered by a highly reflective (98%) 3M vacuum deposition coated film placed onto the acrylic shade. Image Todd Bracher Studio.

Direct-to-textile 3D printing by Stratasys. VeroEco Flex is a family of acrylic-based photopolymers, which are built up layer-by-layer on the surface of the textile. A strong physical bond is formed between the first layers and the fabric. These semi-flexible materials come in a huge range of colours and are available with a matte and gloss finish.

Bencore Lightben composite panel produced by bonding transparent polycarbonate (PC) cylinders to external layers in polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) acrylic, polycarbonate (PC) or polyester (PET)

A pultruded glass fibre reinforced polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA-GF) subway emergency exit walkway. The advantages of composites over metal for these type of applications include non-conductivity, lightweight for ease of installation, and resistance to corrosion and chemicals.

Direct-to-textile 3D printing by Stratasys. VeroEco Flex is a family of acrylic-based photopolymers, which are built up layer-by-layer on the surface of the textile. A strong physical bond is formed between the first layers and the fabric. These semi-flexible materials come in a huge range of colours and are available with a matte and gloss finish.

Centre Pompidou, France, by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, completed in 1977, featuring a tubular steel exoskeleton, cast low alloy steel ‘gerberettes’ (visible 11 ton structure joining the floor trusses to the end columns) and curved polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, glazed walkways.

Lightweight sandwich panel, constructed from honeycomb aluminium core held between cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, sheets. Typically, aluminium alloy 3003 or 5052 are used for the core.

Lightweight sandwich panel, constructed from honeycomb aluminium core held between cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, sheets. Typically, aluminium alloy 3003 or 5052 are used for the core.

Kirinite is a cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, which comes in a wide range of swirling colours and effects.

A shoe prototype design by Gruppo Meccaniche Luciani, 2015. The monolithic prototype was 3D printed using Stratasys PolyJet multi-material technology. Drops of photopolymer are jetted onto the build platform, then cured with UV lamps to bond layers. Support materials are dissolved or manually removed for the finished PolyJet model. Multiple different types of material can be printed simultaneously, ranging from rigid to flexible and transparent to opaque.

Cosmetic packaging prototypes using Stratasys 3D printed photopolymer based on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic. With Stratasys PolyJet 3D printing technology it is possible to print Pantone colours and simulate materials like glass, wood and marble. Drops of photopolymer are jetted onto the build platform, then cured with UV lamps to bond layers. Support materials are dissolved or manually removed for the finished PolyJet model. Multiple different types of material can be printed simultaneously, ranging from rigid to flexible and transparent to opaque.

Cast Elium thermoplastic acrylic washbasin for high scratch resistance and long service life.

Injection moulded polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, in two layers, with encapsulated iridescent layer.

Laser cut discs of cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic. The fluorescent dye emphasises the edge glow effect.

Corian is an artificial stone used for countertops and kitchens. It is made with cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, mixed with around 60% mineral. This makes it heavier and much harder than unfilled acrylic.

Cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, stock used for machining pen blanks and handles.

Kirinite is a cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, which comes in a wide range of swirling colours and effects. Here it has been machined as a trumpet mouthpiece. It is also commonly used for knife handles and pen bodies.

Versato Myst collection, manufactured by PyraSied in cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, with fluorescent and diffusing pigments. The cut edges appear more saturated than the faces, due to a phenomenon known as edge glow, or lit edge. It is caused by lightwaves being refracted internally and transmitted out through the edge, rather than the surface. The effect is enhanced by fluorescent pigment.

Hexagon diffuser, produced in clear polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic. The hexagon structure sheet spreads light in three directions.

Jali by Sensitile, is a light refracting and reflecting panel produced with a proprietary polymer material - based on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic - in a unique layered composition.

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, sheet with fluorescent tint. Reducing the amount of pigment or dye to below the saturation point results in tinted colour. Fluorescent pigments glow brightly because they absorb light in the ultraviolet portion of the spectrum and emit light in the visible portion. Therefore, tinted materials will appear brighter than their surroundings because they emit more visible light. The cut edges appear more saturated than the faces, due to a phenomenon known as edge glow, or lit edge. It is caused by lightwaves being refracted internally and transmitted out through the edge, rather than the surface. The effect is enhanced by fluorescent pigment.

Faux translucent stone, produced by PyraSied, in cast polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic.

Magna-Tiles magnetic building toy injection moulded from colourful transparent acrylic copolymer, methyl methacrylate acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (MABS)

Beamshaper linear diffuser produced by PyraSied in clear extruded polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, reflects and conceals the light source. It has a precise triangular linear structure - featuring peaks with a 90º profile - which means it reflects light perpendicular to the surface. As well as being utilised in novel diffusers, it is used for solar protection (to reflect sunlight).

Laser cut acrylic product badge, printed on both sides and perforated over the speaker

Aircraft interior featuring pre-printed and pre-textured polyvinyl chloride-acrylic (PVC/PMMA) thermoformed panels

Gweilo light sculpture, by Partisans for Parachilna, is made by hot forming etched acrylic sheets by hand. The light is transmitted through the sheet from one edge, and emits as a glow from the cut grooves and edges due to phenomenon known as edge glow, or lit edge.

PH80 lamp, by Poul Henningsen for Louis Poulsen, 1926, features moulded acrylic diffusers

Alphabet of light system, designed by BIG (Bjarke Ingels Group) for Artemide, features white-diffused extruded acrylic tubes in various shapes that can be joined together

Clear cast acrylic with encapsulated plants for interiors and furniture

Aircraft interior featuring pre-textured polyvinyl chloride-acrylic (PVC/PMMA) thermoformed panels

Acrylic slipcase for Courvoisier, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

Adidas Intelligence football boot display box. Edge-glow acrylic, screen-printed opaque white. Designed by Everyone Associates, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

Cross-section through an insulated pipe, made with extruded and cross-linked high density polyethylene (XLPE) filled with polyurethane resin (PUR) foam.

S-Works road cycling shoe by Specialized. The upper is made with Dyneema CT9HW6 ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) laminated to a polyester face to provide an ultralight shoe with very low stretch to ensure maximum transfer of power.

ReformCPH kitchen cabinet. Designed by Muller Van Severen, Match uses extruded sheets of colourful high density polyethylene (HDPE) for the cabinet fronts and, in this example, a Calacatta viola marble worktop and splash-back.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of a recycled plastic composite made from 57% multi-layered plastic film waste, 40% paper coated card waste and 3% additives. The material is APFU (Advanced Paper Fibre Upcycling) B40 by Furukawa Electric.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of a recycled plastic composite made from 60% post-industrial recycled Tetra Pak carton waste (laminated plastic, paper and aluminium) with 40% virgin high density polyethylene (HDPE) and some additives. The material is APFU (Advanced Paper Fibre Upcycling) H60 by Furukawa Electric.

The North Face Summit series Dyneema jacket made with ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE). It is incredible lightweight, durable and waterproof. The material is puncture- and tear-resistant. The only stitches are for the zip. All the other seams are welded.

Moncler Grenoble winter jacket utilises Dyneema ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) to provide a super light and ultra high performance outer layer.

Terralene LD by FKuR is a partially bio-based low density polyethylene (LDPE) especially developed for products that require a high level of fitting accuracy combined with higher flexibility, such as lids. Image FKuR.

Terralene GF30 by FKuR is a partially bio-based polyethylene (HDPE) with 30% short glass fibre. It provides a drop-in replacement for fossil-based PE and is suitable for technical injection moulded parts. Image FKuR.

Epson printer ink cartridge packaged in high density polyethylene (HDPE) film pouch.

Thermoformed consumer electronics packaging in polyethylene (PE).

Pixelhobby toy injection moulded in bio-based polyethylene (bio-LDPE). I'm Green Polyethylene, manufactured by Braskem, is derived from bio-ethanol from Brazilian sugarcane. There are a range of LLDPE, LDPE and HDPE grades. The majority of these grades have renewable carbon content between 80% and 100%. It is suitable as a drop-in replacement for conventional PE in applications ranging from toys to packaging. At the end of its useful life it can be recycled along with non-renewable PE.

Injection moulded high density polyethylene (HDPE)

Dantoy Bio Truck, which is made with bio-based polyethylene (bio-PE), produced from sugarcane. Image Dantoy.

ReformCPH kitchen cabinet. Designed by Muller Van Severen, Match uses extruded sheets of colourful high density polyethylene (HDPE) for the cabinets and worktop.

ReformCPH Match kitchen cabinet samples. Designed by Muller Van Severen, Match uses extruded sheets of colourful high density polyethylene (HDPE) for the cabinets and worktop.

Handed by shopper, which is handmade using 70% recycled high density polyethylene (HDPE).

Artificial grass, produced with extruded high density polyethylene (HDPE) yarns (profiled to mimic grass), tufted onto a nonwoven PE backing layer.

Welded high density polyethylene (HDPE) packaging protection, air inflated.

High density polyethylene (HDPE) bubble wrap packaging.

Heavy duty, one-piece injection moulded returnable transit packaging (RTP) in foamed high density polyethylene (HDPE).

Heavy duty, one-piece injection moulded returnable transit packaging (RTP) in recycled foamed high density polyethylene (HDPE).

Cross-section through a temporary floor panel, made by twin sheet thermoforming. Two sheets are formed simultaneously, one above the other, and then clamped together whilst still hot to form a strong, hollow, profile. In this case, the hollow core provides insulation - these floor panels are designed to be laid over ice rinks to provide a very sturdy and temporary surface.

Mixed recycled polyethylene (PE) compression moulded sheets. It is made of recyled mixed plastic core, which is compressed and encapsulated in a recycled plastic skin, providing a lightweight panel with a dense, smooth surface. Produced from 100% recycled material, it is fully recyclable end-of-life.

Rotation moulded recycled polyethylene (PE) produced from old kayaks. Damaged or degraded kayaks are ground up, mixed, and rotation moulded into new products.

The graphics on the underside of a snowboard, produced from precision die cut polyethylene (PE). Patterns produced in this way are durable to abrasion and will not wear or rub-off like print on plastic.

Cross-section through rotation moulded part made up of polyethylene (PE) skin and PE foam, produced in a single step. This monomaterial solution is the result of triggering the foaming reaction at a high temperature, which occurs after the skin material has already begun to form on the surface of the mould.

Midsummer light, by Tord Boontje for Artecnica, 2004, in die cut Tyvek synthetic paper

Midsummer light, by Tord Boontje for Artecnica, 2004, in die cut Tyvek synthetic paper

Stretch wrap produced with UV-resistant polyethylene (PE) film, which in this case is used to wrap bales of silage for animal feed.

Multi-coloured stretch blow moulded polyethylene (PE) packaging

Cloud storage, by Ronan & Erwan Bouroullec for Cappellini, is made from rotation moulded white polyethylene

Bit stool, by Simon Legald for Normann, in rotation moulded mixed colour recycled low-density polyethylene (LDPE)

eClean bedside cabinet, designed by Kinneir Dufort and manufactured by Hospital Metalcraft (Bristol Maid), is a bedside cabinet made from rotation moulded multi-colour polyethylene (PE), with in-mould label

Mixed recycled post-consumer polyethylene (PE) compression moulded sheets

Polyethylene (PE) film mailer, flexographic printed, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

Underside of a maintenance access hatch for passenger aircraft, showing the injection moulded features and ribs over the compression moulded organo sheet. In a single process, developed by Engel, a pre-heated thermoplastic organosheet is loaded into the mould cavity and over-moulded with high temperature thermoplastic. The materials are carbon fibre polyaryletherketone (PAEK-CF) organo and polyetheretherketone (PEEK) injection mould.

Axial thrust disc produced from carbon fibre reinforced polyetheretherketone (PEEK-CF), CNC machines to precise tolerances. Compared to metal equivalents, it offers lightness, corrosion resistance and chemical resistance. Produced by 3P - Performance Plastics Products.

Various moulded and extruded polyetheretherketone (PEEK) samples

Injection moulded polyetheretherketone (PEEK) structural plate

Nike Hyperfuse Air Max 90, featuring thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) film welded to knitted polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, upper.

Nike Hyperfuse Air Max 90, featuring thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) film welded to knitted polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, upper in neon yellow.

Seed of Love bag, designed by Ross Lovegrove for Tokyo Fiber Sensware exhibition, 2009, produced by Sakase Adtech (fabric) and Unitika (fibre). It is made from triaxial woven fabric consisting of heat-fused polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester fibre. The fibre is a core-sheath filament with a lower melting point polyester in the sheath. With heat, the sheath is melted and fused without affecting the core.

Nonwoven textile made up of sisal mixed with polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester fibres. With heat and pressure, the polyester melts and so, when cool, bonds the sisal fibres in place.

Apple HomePod Mini featuring a seamless knitted spacer textile speaker cover and injection moulded transparent plastic touch panel. In the development of the HomePod, a tubular spacer textile construction was developed to remove the need for an unsightly seam. Spacer textile is a highly breathable warp-knitted fabric consisting of two faces connected with filaments in the middle. The mesh acts as both an acoustically transparent cover for the speaker and cushion to protect the electronics within.

Amber Cycle developed a chemical recycling process that converts waste textile into new polyester without any loss of quality. The recycled material is suitable for all the same applications as regular polyester, including products, furniture, automotive and fibre. Image Amber Cycle.

Ecopel produce high quality faux fur in polyethylene terephthalate (PES), polyester. It is possible to use recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester fibre and their Koba fur uses partially bio-based polyester fibre - polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) marketed under the trade name Sorona. Image by Ecopel.

Kvadrat recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET), polyester, upholstery and interior textiles. Sport by Patricia Urquiola made with 100% rPET. Autumn by Teruhiro Yanagihara made with 100% rPET. Ame by Teruhiro Yanagihara made with 100% rPET from textile waste. Azure Outdoor by Margrethe Odgaard made with 90% rPET and 10% virgin polyester (PET). Tonight curtain fabric made with 70% rPET and 30% virgin PET, with fire retardant additives. Today curtain fabric made with Trevira CS, a PET fibre with 50% recycled (rPET) contents.

Woven polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester fabric, coated with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) teflon. This creates a lightweight, durable and waterproof fabric suitable for a range of sportswear applications.

A composite of glass fibre and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, with a plain woven, yellow, polyester top layer, moulded with heat and pressure

Knitted jumper made with 67% polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, and 33% cotton.

JBL Xtreme 4 portable speaker features a recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, mesh grille.

Kolon perforated synthetic nonwoven suede produced from recycled polyester. It is used for automotive interiors, furniture, luxury goods and interiors.

Kolon synthetic nonwoven suede produced from recycled polyester. It is used for automotive interiors, furniture, luxury goods and interiors.

NaNea by OceanSafe is a 25-30% bio-based polyester that is biodegradable in soil, marine and landfill environments. It is suitable for all types of apparel as a drop-in replacement for regular polyester, including synthetic fur.

NaNea by OceanSafe is a 25-30% bio-based polyester that is biodegradable in soil, marine and landfill environments. It is suitable for all types of apparel as a drop-in replacement for regular polyester.

Digital printed woven polyester spacer fabric by Colortex using Kornit digital print technology.

Hay dog bed by Mette Hay and Barbara Maj Husted Werner (Holly Golightly), 2024, in recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET), polyester fibre, with rPET fill. Image Hay.

Ducting made with low-pressure compression moulded nonwoven polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester fibre. Ribs are integrated into the moulding for added stiffness.

Low-pressure press-moulded polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester fibre, headliner. The surface that faces the passenger compartment is covered with a layer of polyester knit, bonded together with the nonwoven semi-structural backing during the compression process, taking the stack from around 30 mm to 5 mm.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, spacer fabric produced in a single Raschel warp knitting process, consisting of multi-filament faces separated by stiff mono-filament spacer yarns. This creates a highly breathable structure with very good stretch compression properties. It is used in a range of applications, from mattresses and upholstery to garments, footwear and electronics products.

Patagonia shearling pile fleece jacket made with recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester.

Recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, fibre acoustic panels.

Nike Flyknit produced with polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, 3D knitted to create a one-piece upper with varying density to provide the right balance of support and ventilation.

AccessMat, providing access routes on difficult surfaces for pedestrians and people with reduced mobility (PRM) or in wheelchairs, woven with high-strength polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, monofilament.

Nonwoven recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, needle punched into a loose fabric, low pressure compression moulded with heat to form a dense semi-rigid material suitable for furniture and automotive applications.

Gradient colour tests for Adidas t-shirt knitted with recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester. The gradient effect is the result of plied yarn of contrasting colour.

Adidas t-shirt knitted with recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester. The gradient effect is the result of plied yarn of contrasting colour.

Low-pressure compression moulded polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, nonwoven trim, with excess to be removed

Pleated polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, knitted garment

Monday Lamp, by Aleksej Iskos for Muji, uses Kvadrat Reiko polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, fabric.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, spacer fabric produced in a single Raschel warp knitting process, consisting of multi-filament faces and stiff mono-filament spacer yarns

Monday Lamp, by Aleksej Iskos for Muji, uses Kvadrat Reiko polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, fabric.

Paper Cube lamp, by Bertjan Pot for Hay, consists of stitched sheets of plastic made from recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, bottles

Laminated polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, felt acoustic panels with CNC machined V-grooves

Cushioning made from spunbond polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester.

Multi-layer knitted polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, fabric with inlaid polyester yarn.

Multi-colour spacer textile automotive seat upholstery, manufacturing with Raschel warp knitting in polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester.

Air Jordan XIX, 2004, featuring Techflex braided polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, monofilament textile in place of a conventional tongue

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, spacer fabric produced in a single Raschel warp knitting process, consisting of multi-filament faces separated by stiff mono-filament spacer yarns. This creates a highly breathable structure with very good stretch compression properties. It is used in a range of applications, from mattresses and upholstery to garments, footwear and electronics products.

Bowers & Wilkins Formation Wedge speaker, featuring stretch polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, fabric cover.

Whistles woven polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, bag with knitted polyester mesh outer, screen printed white. Manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

In this ultra-thin product cover demonstrator, a Tepex woven carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) sheet is formed and over-moulded with polycarbonate (PC-GF50), and decorated with a Kurz in-mould lamination (IML) film, in a single process on an Engel press.

In this ultra-thin product cover demonstrator, a Tepex woven carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) sheet is formed and over-moulded with polycarbonate (PC-GF50), and decorated with a Kurz in-mould lamination (IML) film, in a single process on an Engel press.

Samples of phone back covers using injection moulded PC/ABS with various material integrated by in-mould labelling (IML) and in-mould decoration (IMD). With IML, a film such as PC or PET is printed with colour and graphics, thermoformed and integrated into the injection moulding process by thermoforming and back-injection, locking the print layer between the film and plastic part - the film and moulded plastic form a permanent bond. With IMD, the decorative layer is supplied on a carrier film, which provides support during the moulding process and is removed afterwards, leaving behind the print, hardcoat, or other decoration. With these techniques, fabric, leather, suede, veneer, mirror film, print, haptics and other effects are integrated into the part during moulding, avoiding secondary processes (like printing and painting).

A handheld gas detection device, moulded in polycarbonate (PC) with a thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) overmoulding. Multishot injection moulding a soft material over the rigid housing creates the opportunity for a seamless finish, hermetic seal and colour.

Corrugated extruded polycarbonate (PC) glazing panel for exterior and interior applications. This system, Akrapan by Akraplast, features a tongue and groove profile to allow multiple panels to slot together, side-by-side. No junction profiles are needed, resulting in a uniform surface.

Car interior part, injection moulded polycarbonate (PC) over-moulded (direct skinned) with polyurethane resin (PUR) self-skinning foam

POC Receptor Backcountry ski helmet featuring high gloss injection moulded polycarbonate alloy (PC/ABS) outer shell, combined with an inner layer of PC/PTFE. The two shells are designed to rotate separately during a crash to lessen the effect of oblique impacts on the head. The outer shell is co-moulded with an impact resistant expanded polypropylene (EPP) inner layer.

Philips SensoTouch shaver housing, injection moulded with polycarbonate (PC) and a multi-layer print in-mould label (IML) with integrated in-mould electronics (IME)

Phillips LivingColors remote, made from injection moulded polycarbonate (PC) with polycarbonate (PC) printed in-mould label (IML)

Games console controller cover, moulded in polycarbonate (PC), with in-mould label (IML) printed and thermoformed PC film for decoration and graphics

Compression moulded glass fibre reinforced polycarbonate (PC) thermoplastic composite colour samples from Toray Cetex

Antenna technology demonstrator, manufactured from injection moulded polycarbonate, which has been laser direct structured (LDS) to allow for localised metal plating

Injection moulded thermoplastic composite FCS H4 surf fin. It is produced by Svismold with unidirectional thermoplastic tape acting as skins, sandwiching a moulded thermoplastic core. With this technology, it is possible to combine several different types of fibre reinforcement and thermoplastic matrix, resulting in different levels of performance. This example is unidirectional carbon fibre and polycarbonate (PC-CF).

Mobile phone cover made from injection moulded translucent polycarbonate (PC) with vacuum metallised aluminium backside for added depth effect

3D dye sublimation print onto thermoformed polycarbonate (PC) face masks.

Injection moulded polycarbonate (PC) with tinted colour and vacuum metallised backside.

Harman Kardon speaker, injection moulded in transparent polycarbonate (PC)

Miss K table lamp, by Philippe Starck for Flos, 2003, featuring an injection moulded transparent polycarbonate (PC) diffuser, metallised with aluminium to create a reflective finish that is thin enough to become see-through when backlit

Pod Lens lamp, by Ross Lovegrove for Luceplan, 1998, is made with a front and back injection moulded in polycarbonate (PC)

Mobile phone cover, made with injection moulded polycarbonate, hot stamped aluminium foil logo, and clear coated for enhanced wear resistance

Castore suspension light, designed by Michele De Lucchi for Artemide, features a blown glass diffuser with polycarbonate stem

Phone back cover made from injection moulded polycarbonate (PC), with variable wall thickness, back-painted in white to emphasise the depth effect

Medical device housing manufactured with pressure-formed polycarbonate (PC) sheet, with debossed logo

Woven laminated airbag made with polyamide (PA), nylon, fibre and a fluid silicone coating. Alternatively, an impermeable film is laminated onto the nylon fabric to help maintain air pressure when inflated. The seams are welded for maximum resistance to tearing.

Echo paraglider wing, fabricated from lightweight woven nylon (PA66) top surface (Dominico D20) and polyurethane resin (PUR) coated nylon (PA66) ripstop underside (Porcher Skytex), the largest model has an area of 28.9 m2 and weighs a mere 4.7 kg.

Gaia artwork, by Luke Jerram, is a 7 m wide floating sphere depicting the earth. Made by Cameron Balloons, is it formed from 50 panels of nylon (PA) fabric coated with polyurethane resin (PUR). The surface is printed with high-resolution images of the earth as seen from space, it is stitched and welded into a globe, and filled with helium.

Commingled glass fibre thermoplastic composite preform, fabricated through tailored fibre placement (TFP) - a type of technical embroidery - in preparation for moulding with heat and pressure

Launched as part of the Stella McCartney Spring 2023 collection, this parka is made with 100% Econyl recycled polyamide (PA), nylon. At the end of its useful life it can be taken back and fully recycled by Aquafil, the manufacturer of Econyl. Image Aquafil / Stella McCartney.

Tarkett carpet tiles produced from Econyl regenerated polyamide (PA), nylon fibre. It is recycled in a closed loop process, by turning nylon waste from old carpet tiles into new floors.

Econyl regenerated polyamide (PA), nylon fibre, from old carpet, spun into yarn in preparation for weaving into new Tarkett carpet tiles. Together, Aquafil and Tarkett have created a closed loop recycling process.

Scrap polyamide (PA), nylon, carpet fibre, which is collected in preparation for recycling into new Econyl fibre by Aquafil.

Messenger bag, made with Cordura fabric, which is woven with a high-strength polyamide (PA), nylon. Nylon provides an extremely hardwearing and weatherproof outer, resistant to dirt, abrasion and tearing.

Nyon flock on fabric, applied by masking the adhesive to create a floral pattern

Hot air balloon, made from stitched panels of lightweight woven ripstop nylon

Hyundai front bumper crash beam development, manufactured by CQFD using curved reactive thermoplastic pultrusion (CRTP) of continuous glass fibre reinforced nylon 6 (PA-GF), overmoulded with glass fibre reinforced black PA-GF

A composite panel made up of UDX PPA and UDX PA11 unidirectional carbon fibre tapes impregnated with bio-sourced and recyclable thermoplastic resins. These two types of polyamide (PA), nylon, composites are produced by Arkema. The random mix has been formed using the quick press process developed by ICC (Japan).

Daimler bolster, produced from thermoformed glass fibre reinforced nylon (PA-GF) organo sheet, overmoulded with PA-GF, manufactured by Valeo

A lightweight shovel made with in-situ polymerised and injection moulded polyamide (PA), nylon. In a process developed by Engel, a woven glass fibre preform is infiltrated with caprolactam and reacted to form a thermoplastic composite. This semi-finished part is transferred to an over-moulding tool and the green parts applied by injection moulding.

A lightweight shovel made with in-situ polymerised and injection moulded polyamide (PA), nylon. In a process developed by Engel, a woven glass fibre preform is infiltrated with caprolactam and reacted to form a thermoplastic composite. This semi-finished part is transferred to an over-moulding tool and the green parts applied by injection moulding.

Injection moulded thermoplastic composite FCS H4 surf fin. It is produced by Svismold with unidirectional thermoplastic tape acting as skins, sandwiching a moulded thermoplastic core. With this technology, it is possible to combine several different types of fibre reinforcement and thermoplastic matrix, resulting in different levels of performance. This examples is unidirectional glass fibre and polyamide (PA-GF), nylon.

Cross section of thermoplastic pultruded composite box beam, by CQFD, made up of unidirectional glass fibre and in-situ cast nylon 6 (PA-GF) used for construction

Cross section through multi-layer extruded nylon 6 pipe, with glass fibre reinforced, thermoplastic pultruded core (PA-GF)

Cross section of thermoplastic pultruded composite, by CQFD, made up of unidirectional glass fibre and in-situ cast nylon 6 (PA-GF) suitable for construction and automotive applications

Cross section of a thermoplastic pultruded beam, made by CQFD with unidirectional glass fibre reinforced in-situ cast nylon 6 (PA-GF)

Sheet moulding compound (SMC) consisting of carbon fibre reinforced nylon 6 (PA-CF60) thermoplastic composite flakes, cut from PA-CF unidirectional tape, to make forged carbon fibre

Injection moulded thermoplastic composite FCS H4 surf fin. It is produced by Svismold with unidirectional thermoplastic tape acting as skins, sandwiching a moulded thermoplastic core. With this technology, it is possible to combine several different types of fibre reinforcement and thermoplastic matrix, resulting in different levels of performance. This example is basalt fibre and polyamide (PA-BF), nylon.

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of Omnix Recycle 50% glass fibre reinforced polyamide (rPA-GF50). This is a high performance material used in metal replacement that bridges the gap between lower performing PA grades and higher performing and higher cost polyphthalamide (PPA).

Positive Plastics injection moulded sample of Rilsan bio-based polyamide 11 (bio-PA11), nylon, by Arkema. This PA11 is made from castor oil. It is 100% bio-based, suitable for a range of applications and manufacturing processes including extrusion, blow moulding, injection moulding, rotation moulding and 3D printing.

Cross-section through the frame of the Affenzahn pushbike made with glass fibre reinforced polyamide (PA0-GF), nylon. The lightweight hollow frame is made using water injection technology (WIT). Similar to gas injection, during the moulding cycle, water is injected, forming a bubble inside the molten plastic, pushing it into the mould cavity and forming a hollow core. It is made with coloured PA, so not pigment is required in the paint layer, and reduces the visible damage from surface scratches. The cut plastic has been painted black for this sample to show off the technology.

The Rein4ced Hardtail XC frame engineered from unidirectional tape made up of carbon fibre reinforced polyamide (PA), nylon.

Detail of Kinematics dress, by Jessica Rosenkrantz and Jesse Louis-Rosenberg for Nervous System, is 3D printed in polyamide (PA), nylon powder. All the parts are printed together, pre-assembled with integrated hinges, creating a flexible articulated structure. Photo Nervous System.

Detail of Hyphae 3D #1, by Jessica Rosenkrantz and Jesse Louis-Rosenberg for Nervous System, is 3D printed in polyamide (PA), nylon powder. Photo Nervous System.

Detail of Florescence Crispata, by Jessica Rosenkrantz and Jesse Louis-Rosenberg for Nervous System, is 3D printed in polyamide (PA), nylon powder. Photo bNervous System.

Bergo Extreme interlocking floor tiles, injection moulded in UV-resistant polyamide (PA), nylon, offer slip resistance in areas such as passenger balconies, pool areas, laundry rooms, engine rooms and freezer rooms on yachts, ferries and cruise ships.

Carbon fibre reinforced polyamide (PA-CF40), nylon 6, extruded on a larger format 3D printer and part way through machining to a smooth finish

Prototype part formed with nylon filament 3D printing, revealing hatched infill

Prototype part formed with nylon filament 3D printing, revealing cross-hatched infill

Prototyping in Tokyo exhibition, Japan House London, 2019, featuring bio-inspired work of Professor Yamanaka Shunji and his lab at the University of Tokyo, made with selective laser sintered (SLS) nylon powder

Press-formed automotive part, made up of patches of continuous glass-fibre reinforced nylon PA6, orientated to optimise strength, manufactured using Cetim’s high-speed thermostamping technique, named Quilted Stratum Process (QSP)

Press-formed automotive part, made up of patches of continuous glass-fibre reinforced nylon PA6, orientated to optimise strength, manufactured using Cetim’s high-speed thermostamping technique, named Quilted Stratum Process (QSP)

Commingled glass fibre thermoplastic composite yarn, fabricated through tailored fibre placement (TFP), compression moulded to form a composite shoe sole

Hand embroidered ceremonial piña shirt. The floral pattern is hand-embroidered and accented with calado embroidery (eyelets), emphasising the natural lustre and translucent qualities of the pineapple fibre.

Trælasthuset (The Timber House) is a parking garage in Nordhavn, Copenhagen, by Vilhelm Lauritzen Arkitekter, completed 2002. The cladding consists of laminated glass, recycled aluminium and Thermwood pine.

Cross section through a wood fibre insulated wall, using various products from Steico, with thermally modified timber (TMT) pine cladding. This setup removes the need for toxic ingredients and contributes to improved indoor air quality.

Accoya acetylated (pickled) wood produced with sustainable managed, fast growing radiata pine. It is dimensionally stable, offers outstanding durability (25 years in ground and 50 years above ground outdoors), takes coatings well, machines well is non-toxic and recyclable with other wood.

Slow grown Scandinavian pine plywood, laminated from rotary cut veneers.

Radiata pine plywood, laminated from rotary cut veneers.

Thermory thermally modified timber (TMT) cladding boards, produced with pine.

Thermory thermally modified timber (TMT) cladding, produced with pine.

Pine plywood lamella panel for interior acoustic applications.

Pine shuttering, used as formwork for setting concrete. The concrete takes on the texture of the wood.

Courtyard door in pine before painting. Timber be used in load bearing applications is machine stress rated (MSR) - graded according to strength class. For example, C16 and C24. Graded timber is generally kiln dried (moisture content is reduced to required levels in a kiln), although can also be wet graded (which is moisture content at ambient levels and not kiln dried).

Timber frame house construction modules being assembled in a factory. Made from nailed pine frames, with oriented strand board (OSB) skins, they arrive on-site ready for installation. Lumber to be used in load bearing applications is machine stress rated (MSR). This is a non-destructive method used to check and validate the strength of the timber to a pre-determined load.

Copper impregnated pine, suitable for outdoor use, dyed brown to give the appearance of dark wood.

Press-impregnated pine stairwell and walkway. The colour has faded over time to look like untreated wood.

Accoya acetylated (pickled) wood produced with radiata pine.

Wednesday table, by Tord Boontje, 2004, painted pine with nails

Dinesen pine blocks

Adidas Handball Spezial shoes, featuring pisgskin nubuck leather upper and natural rubber outsole.
Relevant materials
Natural rubber, NR, Rubber

Pigskin suede.

Folded boxboard takeaway food packaging by Lieferando (Just Eat). The paper is coated with Notpla, a compostable seaweed based coating that provides a barrier to water and grease. After use, the packaging can be disposed in paper recycling, or composting bins. Being completely plastic-free, it is one of the few paper food packaging solutions that provides a truly circular solution. Image Lieferando.

Plastic-lined disposable paper cup. Some mills can handle single-sided plastic lining - the pulp is extracted and the plastic filtered out and burnt for fuel. But typically this type of packaging is sent to landfill or incinerated. In this case, the plastic lining is polyethylene (PE). It is also possible to use polylactic acid (PLA) to produce an industrially compostable cup.

Construction panels made from recycled Tetra Pak packaging by Recoma. No additional glue is needed - the polyethylene (PE) layers already laminated to the paperboard are enough to bond the whole panel together.

Aznu phone packaging manufactured from black card, duplexed with holographic paper and finished with a black deboss logo, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

Crush paper by Favini is made with a mix of paper with 40% recycled fibre and 15% citrus fruit, coconut, cocoa, grapes, cherries, lavender, corn, olive, coffee, kiwi, hazelnuts and almonds – byproducts and waste from agriculture.

Arjowiggins Sylvicta translucent paper provides a renewable, recyclable and compostable packaging material that provides an alternative to plastic films such as polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester. This innovative material, produced from micro fibrillated cellulose (MFC), is used as a barrier layer and is suitable for printing with high resolution graphics. Image Arjowiggins.

High quality corrugated card, produced from recycled flute sandwiched between unbleached kraft liners. Corrugated boards come in standard configurations, such as single face, single wall, double wall and triple wall (pictured).

C-Chair, by Marcel Gascoin for Gubi, in black oiled oak with paper cord seat and back

A multi-layer paper-based film for printed flexible packaging by BillerudKorsnäs. Certified home-compostable and biodegradable, the flexible material is made up of a 60 gsm layer of kraft paper laminated with BASF Ecovio partially bio-based polylactic acid (PLA) film. The mix of paper and bio-based plastic yields a material that has expected level of printability, sealing and strength required for packaging food. Image BASF.

A certified compostable and biodegradable ready-to-eat meal tray by Confoil, an Australian food packaging manufacturer, made with moulded paperboard laminated with a thin film of BASF Ecovio partially bio-based polylactic acid (PLA). The barrier properties of the film are sufficient to be able to use recycled paper in the tray. Image BASF.

Ecor recycled construction panels using a mix of fibres from post consumer recycled paper, forest fibres and agricultural waste. No binder is added.

Duromer high-pressure laminate (HPL) exterior panels by Fundermax. They are coated with a double-cured acrylic polyurethane resin for enhanced weather protection. Image Fundermax.

Honext recycled paper construction panels are produced from sludge waste from paper mills and post-consumer cardboard waste. The wet fibres are mixed with proprietary additives and pressed into a wet board, which is dried with heat to form the finished product. They provide an alternative to plywood, engineered wood panels and gypsum plasterboard. Image Honext.

Push Tab paper-based blister packaging by Syntegon and Huhtamaki, using FibreForm paper-based (75%) material. It provides an alternative to conventional blister packs made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and aluminium foil. The thermoforming technology developed by Syntegon enables the production of trays, pods, blister packs and pouches - many types of packaging previously not possible with paper. FibreForm can be used on its own, or laminated or coated to provide barrier properties and heat-sealing, for example. The coating provided by Huhtamaki provides barrier and sealing properties. With biodegradable plastics it is possible to maintain the compostability of the paper. Image Syntegon.

Thermformed paper-based sweet packaging made with FibreForm by Billerud. Produced with a modified type of kraft pulp, it is more formable than regular paper, and can be shaped into trays, blister packs and pouches. Image Billerud.

Stand up food packaging made with Arjowiggins Sylvicta translucent paper. It provides a plastic free alternative to packaging films such as made from polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester. Image Arjowiggins.

The interior tray of Apple computer transit packaging is produced from die cut and folded thin-gauge corrugated card. This allows for a high percentage of recycled material, while maintaining lightweight and protective packaging that is recyclable end of life.

iCell recycle newspaper into sheets of insulation.

Strips of kraft paper glued at intervals to create a honeycomb structure when expanded. This kind of material is used to make the core of lightweight doors, packaging and sandwich panels.

Single faced corrugated card produced from recycled pulp is formed over a mould to create an extruded profile designed to protect a door in transit. A lightweight, recyclable and compostable packaging solution to replace plastic edge protectors.

Tridas moulded paperboard packaging, hot-pressed with a laminated colour top layer. Image Tridas.

Embossed multiply toilet paper.

Folding boxboard tea packaging made with high quality virgin solid bleached sulphate (SBS).

Close up of the laser cutting and litho printing on the Yauatcha carrier bag, manufactured by Progress Packaging.

Twisted paper cord, woven to make a hat.

Mast chocolate printed paper wrapper with foil liner.

Richlite panel, which is made up of layers of coloured paper, laminated together with phenolic resin under high pressure to produce a rigid board high pressure laminate (HPL).

Paper with waste rice straw added

Paper paper bin, by Clara von Zweigbergk for Hay, used folded recycled cartonboard.

Perforated lightweight packaging paper. The die cut pattern means the paper, when stretched, becomes a 3D honeycomb structure, which helps protect packaged items.

70 gsm kraft carrier bag, printed one colour, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

Established & Sons recycled binder using unlined grey board, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Foil blocked logo. Image Progress Packaging.

Yauatcha laser cut and lithographic printed carrier bag, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image Progress Packaging.

The Orange chair, by Hans Olsen for Warm Nordic, 1955, in smoke oiled oak

Kitchen made with Dinesen Layers in oak, an engineered wood three-layer construction of solid timber for enhanced stability. The glass ceramic induction cooktop is set flush in a stainless steel kitchen counter.

Beosound A5, designed by GamFratesi for Bang & Olufsen, 2023, features an injection moulded PC/ABS speaker grill covered with dark-stained oak slats

Eva Solo porcelain butter dish with oak lid.

Curving oak lined interior on Køge Nord Station footbridge, by architects Cobe and Dissing+Weitling, 2020.

Hørning herringbone white oak floor.

Butte wooden travel case in oak veneer with fluorescent painted interior, by Scholten & Baijings for Established & Sons, 2009. Image Scholten & Baijings.

Red oak used for interior applications.

Oak lamella panel for interior acoustic applications.

The floor of the Apex, Bury St Edmunds, England, by Hopkins Architects, completed 2010. The interior is clad in 18 mm American white oak planks, fixed to a plywood substrate to optimise the acoustics. Oak is incredibly hardwearing and suitable for heavy traffic floors.

The Apex, Bury St Edmunds, England, by Hopkins Architects, completed 2010. The interior is clad in 18 mm American white oak planks, fixed to a plywood substrate to optimise the acoustics. For the seating a mix of solid and veneer was used.

Bog wood comes from trees that have been buried in peat bogs (or similar environments, such as swamps or the bottom of lakes) for hundreds and sometimes even thousands of years. Deprived of oxygen, the wood is protected from decay and begins the process of fossilisation. The wood is usually stained dark brown, or black, by tannins dissolved in the acidic water. As a result, it provides an alternative to critically endangered exotic hardwoods, like ebony. However, it is hard to find and large pieces can be very expensive.

Engineered oak floor scribed to fit a stone wall

EM Table, by Jean Prouvé for Vitra, 1950, featuring a solid European Oak wood top

Suspended lamella ceiling structure in Dinesen white oak

White oak sticks hanging from the ceiling in the Dinesen showroom, Copenhagen, Denmark

Dinesen white oak floor, with butterfly joins

Polished oak table top showing distinctive rays and flecks

Seventeenth century, oak framed, threshing barn, Henham Park, UK

Bang & Olufsen Beosound A9 featuring turned oak legs

Nyetimber laser etched oak packaging, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image courtesy of Progress Packaging.

Metal emblems and logos are made by electroforming nickel, printing, embossing, chemical etching and die cutting

Metal emblems and logos are made by electroforming nickel, printing, embossing, chemical etching and die cutting

RB211-524 gas turbine jet engine by Rolls-Royce, 1995-96, featuring single crystal turbine blades cast from nickel Inconel 718 superalloy

Gen1 Grapes T. Black trainers by Mother Earth [MoEa] sneakers brand. The upper is made with GrapeSkin synthetic leather, which is made up of 55% grape waste, 45% water-based polyurethane resin (PUR) and recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET), polyester, backing. Natural rubber sole with 30% recycled content. Image MoEa.

Allbirds Plant Pacer trainers. Upper made from Mirum from startup Natural Fiber Welding (plastic-free plant leather made with natural rubber, plant-based oil, natural pigments, and minerals), lining made with 43% eucalyptus-based Tencel Lyocell and 57% recycled polyester (PET), midsole made with sugarcane-based green ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), and sole in natural rubber. Image Allbirds.

Wellington boot by Stella McCartney for Hunter, 2019, made with Yulex rubber. The sole and upper are moulded and welded to produce a watertight boot. The stretch-sock insert is a closed-cell foam produced with natural rubber, also from Yulex. This material offers an alternative to neoprene, a synthetic rubber typically used in these types of fabrics, like wetsuits. Image Hunter.

Dunlop natural rubber (NR) tyre.
Relevant materials
Natural rubber, NR, Rubber

Mirum colours by Natural Fiber Welding. This plastic-free plant leather is made with natural rubber, plant-based oil, natural pigments, and minerals. Image Natural Fiber Welding.
Relevant materials
Natural rubber, NR, Rubber

Latex natural rubber with colour.
Relevant materials
Natural rubber, NR, Rubber

Excavator tracks made with up to around 70% natural rubber, reinforced with high tensile steel cords.
Relevant materials
Natural rubber, NR, Rubber

Beirut Caoutchouc artwork, by Marwan Rechmaoui, 2006, which depicts Beirut’s districts according to municipal organisation, is machined in rubber
Relevant materials
Natural rubber, NR, Rubber

White consumer electronics packaging made with thermoformed pulp.

Moulded pulp shoe inserts, produced by thermoforming, which yields a thin wall section and high quality surfaces front and back. In this case, recycled fibre is used.

Electronics packaging made with coloured pulp, transfer moulded to improve surface finish and create a lighter wall section.

Consumer electronics packaging made with transfer moulded (after-pressed) pulp, produced by Tridas. Image Tridas.

Coloured consumer electronics packaging made with thermoformed pulp, produced by Tridas. Image Tridas.

Electronics packaging made with coloured pulp, thermoformed to create a precise and lightweight insert with a high quality surface finish.

Moulded paper pulp packaging for transporting automotive parts, produced by Tridas using pulp thermoforming. Image Tridas.

Moulded paper pulp packaging with added agricultural waste (rice straw) produced using the transfer method. The backside carries the texture of the wire mesh and the inside is smooth.

Kizu table lamp, by Lars Tornøe for New Works, features a Pacific Grey marble base and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, diffuser.

Kizu table lamp, by Lars Tornøe for New Works, features a Bianco Carrara marble base and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), acrylic, diffuser.

Pygmalion and Galathea by Auguste Rodin, 1889, in carved marble.
Relevant materials
Marble, Slab

Accura's headquarters in Nordhavn, Copenhagen, by Danielsen Architecture, completed 2023. The cladding is Polaris stone, a bright white marble quarried in Greece. It was cut and prepared by Nielsens Mekaniske Stenhuggeri.
Relevant materials
Marble, Slab

Marquina black marble fireplace surround, with its distinctive fine white veins.
Relevant materials
Marble, Slab

Machined marble bowls for salt and pepper.
Relevant materials
Marble, Slab

The Parthenon temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, built around 2,500 years ago, is made entirely from Pentelic marble quarried nearby.
Relevant materials
Marble, Slab

PK54 table, by Poul Kjærholm for Fritz Hansen, features a rolled grey Fior di Bosco marble top.
Relevant materials
Marble, Slab

Belgian Marbles Surfboards, by Reena Spaulings, 2009, machined and honed from Portoro (black) and Rosa Portogallo (pinkish-white).
Relevant materials
Marble, Slab

Interior, Istanbul, cut from Dolomite white marble.
Relevant materials
Marble, Slab

Violin front and back. The soundboard (front) is quarter-sawn spruce rough shaped ready for tuning, and the back is figured maple.

Colour Stool in maple wood by Scholten & Baijings for Karimoku New Standard, 2011. Photo by Takumi Ota for Scholten & Baijings.

Frederick Phelps violins in solid maple. The figured grain (flame) contributes to the superior acoustic properties of the violin, because it is interrupted and so does not resonate like straight grain.

Mahogany cladding and powder coated steel on coastal public seating.

A composition of mahogany in various shapes, including treated and unfinished, at Carl Hansen & Søn

Cross-car beam produced by Elring Klinger with thixomoulded magnesium alloy assembled onto hydroformed aluminium alloy, over-moulded with 60% glass fibre reinforced polyamide (PA-GF60), nylon. This type of hybrid metal construction provides maximum strength to weight, whilst allowing design freedom for the integration of instrument panel, steering, airbags, hot and cold air, and all other necessary elements.

Panasonic Toughbook cover, thixomoulded (similar to injection moulding) in magnesium AZ91. The same technique is used in the production of cameras, mobile phones, displays and televisions. The magnesium is painted to protect it from oxidisation when in use.

Forged Elektron AZ80 magnesium alloy racing wheel, which is significantly lighter than aluminium (6 kg per wheel). Magnesium wheels are either gravity die cast or forged. Forged wheels have superior mechanical properties and the wall sections may be thinner than with casting, resulting in lighter wheels. The drawback of magnesium generally is the relatively poor corrosion resistance and resilience, so they tend to be only suitable for short term use, such as racing wheels. Image by Luxfer.

Copenhagen Opera House, by Henning Larsen, completed 2004, features a stainless steel (1.4435) and laminated glass facade by Waagner Biro, beige Jura Gelb limestone cladding and one of the largest canopy roof structures in the world. The 90 x 158 m roof is based on a low alloy steel box construction covered with 14,000 m2 of standing seam, stainless steel roof panels. The substructure for the 9,000 m2. roof soffit (underside) is a cold formed thin gauge steel structure covered with mat-coated Alucobond composite panels, designed and produced by Grønbech Construction.

Copenhagen Opera House, by Henning Larsen, completed 2004, features a stainless steel (1.4435) and laminated glass facade by Waagner Biro, beige Jura Gelb limestone cladding and one of the largest canopy roof structures in the world. The 90 x 158 m roof is based on a low alloy steel box construction covered with 14,000 m2 of standing seam, stainless steel roof panels. The substructure for the 9,000 m2. roof soffit (underside) is a cold formed thin gauge steel structure covered with mat-coated Alucobond composite panels, designed and produced by Grønbech Construction.

Copenhagen Opera House, by Henning Larsen, completed 2004, features a stainless steel (1.4435) and laminated glass facade by Waagner Biro, beige Jura Gelb limestone cladding and one of the largest canopy roof structures in the world. The 90 x 158 m roof is based on a low alloy steel box construction covered with 14,000 m2 of standing seam, stainless steel roof panels. The substructure for the 9,000 m2. roof soffit (underside) is a cold formed thin gauge steel structure covered with mat-coated Alucobond composite panels, designed and produced by Grønbech Construction.

Carved Jura travertine cladding on Tower 185, Frankfurt. Jura travertine from Germany (in this case Bavaria’s Altmühl valley) varies between beige, cream and light grey. It is used for walls, floors, countertops and stairwells, in both interior and exterior applications.
Relevant materials
Limestone, Slab

Epic coffee table, by GamFratesi for Gubi, cut from travertine stone - a form of terrestrial limestone deposited around mineral springs.
Relevant materials
Limestone, Slab

Doric coffee table, by GamFratesi for Gubi, in polished limestone
Relevant materials
Limestone, Slab

Epic coffee table, by GamFratesi for Gubi, cut from travertine stone - a form of terrestrial limestone deposited around mineral springs.
Relevant materials
Limestone, Slab

Skylight over the polished marble stucco stairwell linking the galleries of the Glyptotek, Copenhagen. The Henning Larsen building was inaugurated in 1996 for the Glyptotek’s collection of modern painting. The wall covering by Ampio uses stucco lustro, an age-old Italian technique that creates a bright reflective interior surface. The material for stucco lustro is a mixture of slaked lime and crushed marble. It may be dyed to obtain different colours and mixed with mother of pearl, black sand, gold leaf or other natural additives to obtain a specific effects.

Charlottenborg, Copenhagen, Denmark, completed 1683, features vast stucco ceilings in lime plaster.

Tecnaro Arboform injection moulded wood-based plastic toothbrush cup hoder. This innovative bioplastic is made with lignin, wood fibre and cellulose leftover from the paper-making process. It is mixed with some additives and suitable for injection moulding.

Tecnaro Arboform injection moulded wood-based plastic soap dish. This innovative bioplastic is made with lignin, wood fibre and cellulose leftover from the paper-making process. It is mixed with some additives and suitable for injection moulding.

Untreated larch shiplap cladding gradually turning silvery grey with exposure to the elements.

Larch cladding turning silver with age on the outside of Møns Klint Geocenter, Denmark.

Yakisugi (焼杉), sometimes also known as shou sugi ban outside Japan, is a wood burning technique that has been used for centuries in Japan to extend the lifespan of wood in exterior applications. It was conceived before chemical treatments were available as a means of improving the longevity of wood by preventing decay, insect and mould infestation, while making planks more dimensionally stable and improving fire resistance. Typically used for siding and cladding on exteriors, the surface may be sealed and oiled for interior use, furniture and products.

End grain larch floor by Hørning. Naked surface without treatment.

End grain larch floor by Hørning. Lightly oiled surface.

Wavy edge larch cladding, with the bark intact. This clearly shows how this species is majority heartwood - this is the most durable part of the tree and why larch can be used outdoors without preservative. The sapwood converts into heartwood relatively quickly.

Inn The Park, London, by Hopkins Architects for the Royal Parks, completed 2004. Austrian larch is used both inside and out. Externally, this is left untreated so that it gradually weathers, while inside, the larch is oiled to retain its warm colour. Image Hopkins Architects.

Inn The Park, London, by Hopkins Architects for the Royal Parks, completed 2004. Austrian larch is used both inside and out. Externally, this is left untreated so that it gradually weathers, while inside, the larch is oiled to retain its warm colour. Image Hopkins Architects.

Kapok textiles by Flocus, made with the soft fibre from the seed pod.

Flocus monwoven textiles made with kapok fibre, held between lightweight plastic scrim. The ultra soft fibre, derived from the kapok seed pod, is traditionally used as a stuffing filler.

Jute fibre-reinforced epoxy, produced by Bcomp, compression moulded in a single step with nonwoven jute core.

Jute fibre-reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) biocomposite produced by Kunststofshop. This non-toxic and compostable sheet material provides an alternative to glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP). It is thermoformable and can be laser cut and die cut.

Hunter Laing whiskies packaging from their 2017 Kinship range. Hessian bags designed by Contagious, manufactured by Progress Packaging. Image courtesy of Progress Packaging.
Relevant materials
Jute fibre, Fibre

Plaster ceiling mouldings and wrought iron railings, Gallery of Modern Art (GoMA), Glasgow, Scotland. The characteristic flowing shape of wrought iron work is the result of its combination of malleability with relatively high strength and stiffness. Together, this enables to construction of elegant and ornate details.

Paddington station, London, UK, by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, completed 1854, features wrought and cast iron. Iron played a significant role in the development of architecture, because it enabled longer spans and thinner sections, creating light and space in public buildings that was not possible before. In Paddington, the glass panes have been replaced with polycarbonate (PC), for safety.

Liverpool Street Station, London, by Edward Wilson, completed 1875. The roof structure consists of wrought-iron spans on cast-iron columns.

Compacted graphite iron (CGI) casting by BAS Castings, UK. Almost twice the strength of grey cast iron, it can be cast near net-shape, which helps to maintain relatively low manufacturing costs. Its good fatigue properties, ease of machining, thermal and damping properties are the reason it is gaining popularity in automotive engine applications such as engine blocks, flywheels, clutch components and piston rings. Image BAS Castings.

Austempered ductile cast iron casting by BAS Castings, UK. Austempered ductile iron (ADI) is a development on ductile cast iron that enhances mechanical properties whilst maintaining ductility and casting quality. Additions of copper, nickel and molybdenum are made to improve hardenability through heat treatment. Strengths of up to 1,400 MPa are feasible. Image BAS Castings.

Ductile cast iron casting by BAS Castings, UK. It has a lower melting temperature than steel, and so cheaper to cast, especially into large and complex parts. Image BAS Castings.

Ductile cast iron casting by BAS Castings, UK. It has a lower melting temperature than steel, and so cheaper to cast, especially into large and complex parts. Image BAS Castings.

Cast iron freestanding bath foot.

The serrated trailing edge of a wind turbine blade - also called DinoTail (Siemens), feathered, sawtooth - helps improve airflow over the surface, resulting in less turbulence, better aerodynamics and reduced noise as the blade cuts through the air. Inspired by the rough edges on an owl's wings, the same trick is used on jet engine housings.

Cross section through the trailing edge of a wind turbine rotor blade produced from high modulus glass fibre reinforced epoxy over a balsa wood core. The two halves are bonded with two-part epoxy.

Technical nonwoven made with 50% hemp and 50% wool.

Malai coconut textile is made up of nonwoven fibres (banana, sisal and hemp), combined with bacterial cellulose (BC). The acetobacter microorganisms are fed on coconut waste water. Through a process of fermentation, the sugars in the water are converted into micro fibrillated cellulose (MFC). This produces sheets of material that are converted into textiles, providing an alternative to leather. The sheets are coloured with plant-based mordant-free dyes.

A sandwich panel for interior application, consisting of hempwool core for insulation and acoustics, combined with decorative oak veneered hardboard skins.

The IsoHemp hempcrete block is a non-load-bearing, glued masonry product designed for the production of healthy and natural insulating envelopes, partition walls and counter-partitions. As well as providing thermal and acoustic insulation, hempcrete construction helps to regulate temperature due to its excellent ability to diffuse the accumulated heat, and regulate humidity due to its high permeability to water vapour.

Silentlith hemp acoustic panel by von Hanf. It is made with hemp and minerals and is formaldehyde free, providing a sound-absorbing solution for indoor use. It is used as a wall and ceiling-forming element for thermal, sound and fire protection as well as a plaster base in loft conversions, interior fittings and wooden beam ceilings.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Hemplime, Hempcrete

Hemplith hemp building board by von Hanf. It is made with hemp, straw and minerals and is formaldehyde free. It is used as a non-load-bearing cladding panel or plaster base and is suitable for interior finishing (like living rooms and bathrooms) and planking.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Hemplime, Hempcrete

Hemplith hempwool hemp insulation panel by von Hanf. This product offers excellent protection from the cold and summer heat. Its fine-pored structure provides good acoustic properties. Minerals have been added to improve protection against fire, fungi and insects.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Fibre

Nonwoven hemp fibre sheets, such as for insulation and compression moulded components.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Fibre

Agraloop Biofibre fabric for Zara Home by Circular Systems. This innovative textile is produced with hemp fibres leftover from medicinal crop production. Image Zara.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Fibre

Agraloop Biofibre fabric by Circular Systems produced with hemp fibres leftover from medicinal crop production. Image Circular Systems.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Fibre

Various hemp reinforcement fabrics for composite structures.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Fibre

Hemp fibre insulation panels made by Recoma using shredded stems.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Fibre

Hand woven hemp fabric. Unbleached natural colour.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Fibre

Hemp (hempwool) insulation boards. Hemp is one of the most resistant insulations against rodents, mites, moths, and termites. It is available with added fire retardant.
Relevant materials
Hemp, Fibre

Brick slips for Pret a Manger, London, created by Universal Display, cast in Jesmonite gypsum-acrylic composite. Photo by Jesmonite.

XL Chunky Trays by Razzo Studio, cast in Jesmonite gypsum-acrylic composite using off-cuts from previous projects. Jesmonite is not considered food safe, but is suitable for decorative tableware. Image Razzo Studio.

The Goring Hotel bar & lounge, London, 2019, by Geoffrey Preston Sculpture & Design. The design was created in clay, moulded in silicon rubber and then cast in fibre reinforced plaster. Image Nick Rochowski, Geoffrey Preston.

Great Fulford Great Drawing Room ceiling, 2013, by Geoffrey Preston Sculpture & Design. The design was created in clay, moulded in silicon rubber and then cast in fibre reinforced plaster. Image Nick Carter, Geoffrey Preston.

Flexible plasterboard profile produced by V-Cut.

SuperOrganic natural wall covering by Oberflex. This example is made with compressed dried hay and blue cornflowers on 100 gsm nonwoven linen. It is often clad onto a sound absorbing material or high pressure laminate (HPL), depending on the requirements of the interior space.

Hemplith LDF drywall board by von Hanf. It is made with straw, an annually renewable material and is formaldehyde free. They are primarily designed as non-load-bearing wall cladding or plaster base and are ideal for interior construction using the dry construction method.
Relevant materials
Grass, Fibre, strand

Knitted grass slippers.
Relevant materials
Grass, Fibre, strand

Twisted straw rope.
Relevant materials
Grass, Fibre, strand

Grass insulation bat made from fibres from annual crops. It can absorb more moisture than synthetic equivalents, and does not contain any adhesives, and so contributes to improved indoor air quality. About 1 hectare (2.4 acres) of land yields around 200 m3 of insulation.
Relevant materials
Grass, Fibre, strand

Handwoven reed basket from Alentejo, Portugal.
Relevant materials
Grass, Fibre, strand
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