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Nickel
7-45 usd/kg
Nickel is a bright silvery metal with outstanding corrosion resistance, chemical resistance and high temperature endurance. Recognisable as the coating on glass mirrors, the majority goes into the production of stainless steel and alloy steel. It is also an important alloy with non-ferrous metals, such as copper and aluminium. On top of this, it is used in batteries and as a coating in metal plating.
Nickel superalloys, such as with chromium (Cr) and copper (Cu), have exceptional mechanical properties and chemical resistance at very high temperature. They are utilised in the most demanding marine, chemical, raw material processing, food manufacturing and aerospace applications.
Nickel production is energy intensive and results in significant CO2 emissions. The amount depends on the source of nickel and type of ore, with ores coming from remote and inaccessible areas requiring a great deal of infrastructure to be built. As all of the more accessible nickel deposits and relatively lower energy demand ores are extracted, companies are inevitably moving on to more challenging sites, which will lead to an increased embodied energy and carbon footprint.
Sustainability concerns
Non-renewable ingredients
Raw material generates polluting by-products
Alloy 200 (UNS N02200, 2.4066) is 99.6% wrought nickel and one of the toughest metals. It has high conductivity, excellent mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and is magnetic. Outdoors, corrosion rates in both marine and rural atmospheres are very low. It is not particularly strong in the annealed condition, and so is available in a range of tempers. Applications include synthetic fibre production, food processing, chemical storage and aerospace components.
It can be machined and formed with conventional metalworking processes, much the same as mild steel. It can be pressed, stamped, spun and deep drawn into sheet parts. Hot forming to make 3D shapes is carried out at 650-1,230 degC and includes forging, rolling and bending.
Alloy 201 (UNS N02201, 2.4068) is a low carbon version of alloy 200 used for continuous high service temperatures above 315 degC. Continuous exposure of alloy 200 to high temperatures can lead to the formation of graphite, which may be undesirable.
An important area of application for nickel is in electroforming. Applications range from micro electronic components and precision meshes, to moulds for aircraft wings. Electroforming is an electrodeposition process like electroplating. However, in this case, the metal is deposited onto a mandrel or mould that is subsequently removed. So when finished, the electroformed part is free standing. Almost any type of material can be used as the mandrel, including metal, plastic and even textile. The type of metal used depends on the application and includes pure nickel and its alloys. Other types of metal are suitable – such as copper, silver and gold – but none are as hard or efficient (highly controllable with rapid deposition rates) as nickel.
Electroforming is used to produce precision meshes, such as for printing screens, centrifuge screens for kitchen appliances, coffee filters, razor foils, filters and sieves. Electroformed nickel moulds are used in many industries. While they reproduce very small details very well, down to sub-micron laser etched patterns (holograms), the maximum size is only limited by the electroforming tank and huge moulds are possible. Examples include shell moulds suitable for thermoforming (vacuum formed packaging), rotation moulding, slush moulding (soft touch car interiors), blow moulding (packaging) and composite laminating (automotive, motorsport, transportation and aerospace). Badges for cars and electronic products are often electroformed from nickel prior to printing or painting with colour.
